UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNI 


:j 

GEORGE  MOREY  RICHARDSON 


Received,  ^August,  1898. 


A  GRAMMAR  OF  THE  LATIN 
LANGUAGE 


FOR  THE 


USE  OF  SCHOOLS  AND  COLLEGES 


BY 


E.  A.  ANDREWS  AND  S.  STODDARD 


REVISED   BY 

HENRY  PREBLE 

ASSISTANT  PROFESSOR  OP  GREEK  AND  LATIN  AT  HARVARD  UNIVERSITY 


BOSTON 
HOUGHTON,  MIFFLIN  AND  COMPANY 

New  York:   11  East  Seventeenth  Street 


Copyright,  1857, 
By  CEOCKEE  &  BREWSTER, 

Copyright,  1885, 
BY  JCLIA  H.  WILSON,  ELLEN  A.  ANDREWS,  ELIZABETH  C.  ORTIZ,  AND  MART  ANDREWS. 

Copyright,  1888, 

BY  JULIA  H.  WILSON,  ELLEN  A.  ANDREWS,  ELIZABETH  C.  ORTIZ,  MARY  ANDREWS,  AND 
HOCGHTON,  MLFFLIN  &  Co. 

All  rights  reserved. 


The  Riverside  Press,  Cambridge : 
Electrotyped  and  Printed  by  H.  0.  Houghton  and  Company. 


UNI 


PEEFACE. 


WHEN  I  acceded  to  the  request  of  the  publishers  and  the 
owners  of  the  copyright  of  Andrews  and  Stoddard's  Latin 
Grammar,  that  I  should  revise  that  work,  I  had  no  idea  that 
the  new  book  would  be  so  unlike  the  original.  In  the  thirty 
years,  however,  since  the  Grammar  was  last  revised,  opinions 
have  changed  a  good  deal  as  to  what  the  contents  of  such  a 
book  should  be,  and  how  they  should  be  presented,  and  our 
knowledge  of  the  Latin  language  has  made  very  great  progress. 
I  have  consequently  found  myself  driven  further  and  further 
from  the  earlier  form  of  the  Grammar ;  but  the  apprehension  I 
naturally  felt  at  this  result  has  been  relieved  somewhat  by  the 
fact  that  the  learned  authors  of  the  original  work  confess  to  a 
similar  experience.  In  justification  of  my  procedure  I  cannot 
do  better  than  quote  the  following  words  from  their  preface :  — 

"  The  Grammar  here  presented  to  the  public  originated  in  a  de- 
sign, formed  several  years  since,  of  preparing  a  new  edition  of 
Adam's  Latin  Grammar,  with  such  additions  and  corrections  as  the 
existing  state  of  classical  learning  plainly  demanded.  We  had  not 
proceeded  far  in  the  execution  of  this  purpose,  before  we  were  im- 
pressed with  the  conviction,  which  our  subsequent  researches  contin- 
ually confirmed,  that  the  defects  in  that  manual  were  so  numerous 
and  of  so  fundamental  a  character  that  they  could  not  be  removed 
without  a  radical  change  in  the  plan  of  the  work.  .  .  .  Instead,  there- 
fore, of  prosecuting  our  original  purpose,  we  at  length  determined  to 
mould  our  materials  into  a  form  corresponding  with  the  advanced 
state  of  Latin  and  Greek  philology." 

Most  of  the  old  paradigms  have  been  retained,  and  others 
have  sometimes  been  added.  In  the  case  of  the  regular  verb 
I  have  printed  the  four  conjugations  side  by  side,  because  when 
thus  placed  they  are  more  easily  seen  to  be  really  varieties  of 
one  conjugation,  and  their  forms  are  more  easily  implanted  in 
the  memory  than  when  learned  in  four  isolated  groups. 


iv  PREFACE. 

Many  of  the  old  examples  also  remain,  and  many  new  ones 
have  been  introduced.  Those  quoted  from  the  Latin  authors  I 
have  assigned,  when  possible,  to  their  exact  sources  ;  but  in  va- 
rious instances,  especially  among  the  examples  retained  from 
the  earlier  Grammar,  I  have  been  unable,  with  the  time  at  my 
command,  to  discover  the  precise  reference.  It  has  seemed  to 
me  best  not  to  sacrifice  instructive  examples  on  this  account, 
but  to  leave  them,  as  in  the  older  editions,  simply  accredited  to 
their  respective  authors. 

The  general  sequence  of  topics  has  not  been  greatly  altered. 
The  most  important  changes  are  the  following :  The  sections 
treating  of  Word-Formation  have  been  gathered  into  one  place 
—  between  Inflection  and  Syntax  —  instead  of  being  distributed 
among  the  different  parts  of  speech  in  connection  with  their  in- 
flection. This  treatment  of  Word-Formation  I  have  tried  to 
make  more  effective  by  giving  the  pupil,  where  it  could  be  done, 
some  insight  into  the  processes  of  the  growth  of  words  rather 
than  merely  classifying  derivatives  according  to  their  apparent 
endings.  The  treatment  of  adverbs  (except  their  comparison), 
and  of  prepositions  and  other  particles,  as  not  properly  belong- 
ing to  Inflection,  has  been  transferred  partly  to  Word-Formation, 
partly  to  Syntax.  The  rules  of  quantity  have  been  brought  into 
the  early  part  of  the  book  instead  of  being  relegated  to  Versifica- 
tion, because  they  seem  to  me  necessary  to  a  reasonable  accuracy 
in  pronunciation,  which,  if  neglected  at  the  start,  tends  to  a  dis- 
tressing slovenliness  very  hard  to  correct  later.  While  the  rules 
of  agreement  for  adjectives  and  pronouns  remain  in  their  old 
place  at  the  beginning  of  Syntax,  I  have  postponed  the  rest  of 
the  syntax  of  such  words  till  after  the  treatment  of  the  cases,  in 
order  to  secure  a  more  natural  progression  in  the  study  of  syn- 
tactic details. 

No  attempt  has  been  made  to  retain  the  old  numbering  of  the 
sections,  for  the  necessary  insertion  of  new  matter  would  have 
resulted  in  exhausting  the  patience  of  both  teacher  and  pupil  by 
a  complicated  system  of  references.  The  book  has  been  divided 
only  into  sections  and  subsections,  with  occasional  notes,  the  three 
kinds  of  divisions  being  distinguished  by  type  of  different  sizes. 


PREFACE.  V 

The  main  sections  sometimes  consist  of  two  or  three  numbered 
paragraphs.  This  arrangement  allows  the  most  detailed  refer- 
erence  without  the  use  of  longer  indications  than  323,  2,  b,  or 
168,  c,  Note  1. 

In  the  matter  of  pronunciation  I  have  made  no  reference  to 
the  so-called  English  method.  The  time  seems  ripe  for  sparing 
the  teacher  the  necessity  of  choosing  between  a  system  accepted 
by  the  scholarly  world  as  substantially  correct  and  one  which, 
though  still  somewhat  sheltered  by  a  conservative  tradition, 
makes  the  mastery  of  quantity  and  even  of  word-formation 
unnecessarily  difficult. 

The  third  declension  is  a  stumbling-block  in  the  young  learn- 
er's progress,  because  he  does  not  readily  see  any  resemblance 
between  the  nouns  there  treated,  such  as  appears  in  the  other 
declensions.  This  is  due  partly  to  the  varied  aspect  of  the  con- 
sonant-stems, and  partly  to  the  mixing  of  i-stem  forms  with  con- 
sonant-stem forms.  Both  the  strict  grouping  by  stems  and  the 
division  according  to  the  form  of  the  nominative  singular  given 
in  certain  German  grammars  are  unsatisfactory,  because  the 
groups  cross  each  other,  and  thus  destroy  the  unity  of  classifica- 
tion. I  have  tried  to  meet  the  difficulty  by  grouping  the  conso- 
nant-stems simply  according  to  their  behavior  toward  the  let- 
ter s,  and  by  presenting  the  i-stems  in  a  progressive  series, 
showing  different  stages  in  the  absorption  of  consonant-stem 
forms. 

The  obscurity  which  "envelops  the  subjunctive  mood  I  have 
tried  to  render  as  slightly  opaque  as  possible.  Examples  have 
been  supplied  with  rather  unusual  copiousness,  because  I  believe 
that  the  contemplation  of  examples  is  the  surest  way  to  acquire 
a  feeling  for  the  subtle  differences  between  the  subjunctive  and 
the  indicative,  especially  in  those  uses  in  which  it  seems  to  the 
novice  as  if  the  ancients  employed  either  mood  quite  indiffer- 
ently. 

With  regard  to  the  arrangement  of  words  in  sentences,  my 
own  studies  have  led  me  to  views  somewhat  at  variance  with 
those  commonly  held.  My  reasons  for  the  difference,  in  its 
most  important  detail,  I  have  explained  briefly  in  a  footnote  on 


VI  PREFACE. 

page  382,  and  I  venture  to  trust  that  they  may  be  found  con- 
vincing. 

Throughout  the  revision  I  have  tried  to  keep  in  mind  the 
needs  of  the  beginner,  and  when  it  has  been  necessary  to  intro- 
duce the  results  of  modern  philological  research,  I  have  tried  to 
state  them  as  simply  and  definitely  as  possible.  At  the  same 
time,  I  have  endeavored  to  furnish  the  more  advanced  pupil 
with  all  that  is  essential  to  his  work  both  at  school  and  in  col- 
lege, until  the  time  when  an  exhaustive  grammar  becomes  a 
necessity  to  him.  I  have  especially  aimed  at  treating  the  more 
difficult  topics  in  such  a  way  as  to  be  clear,  while  leaving  as 
little  as  possible  to  be  uidearned  when  the  pupil's  study  becomes 
more  mature  and  scientific.  Thus,  among  many  things,  I  have 
followed  the  growing  custom  of  German  scholars  in  abandoning 
the  character  j,  while  retaining  the  distinction  between  u  and  V. 

A  mass  of  rare  exceptions  to  rules  and  of  small  irregularities 
in  the  linguistic  usage  of  the  less  known  Latin  writers  has  been 
excluded  from  the  present  book.  Such  details  are  an  unneces- 
sary encumbrance  in  a  grammar  intended  for  student  use  rather 
than  exhaustive  reference,  and  they  are  accessible  to  those  who 
need  them  in  larger  grammars  and  lexicons.  This  retrenchment 
has,  however,  failed  to  reduce  the  volume  of  the  book,  because 
of  the  improvement  in  the  size  of  the  type  which  the  publishers 
have  been  good  enough  to  make  for  me. 

"Whatever  books  seemed  likely  to  help  me  have,  of  course, 
been  freely  brought  into  service,  but  I  may  mention,  as  of  par- 
ticularly constant  assistance,  Kiihner's  "  Ausfiihrliche  Gram- 
matik  der  lateinischen  Sprache,"  A.  Goldbacher's  "  Lateinische 
Grammatik  fur  Schulen,"  Allen  and  Greenough's  "  Latin  Gram- 
mar," and  Anton  Marx's  "  Hiilfsbiichlein  fur  die  Aussprache 
der  lateinischen  Vokale  in  positionslangen  Silben."  To  H.  J. 
Roby's  Latin  Grammar  I  am  indebted  for  many  examples  in 
illustration  of  the  uses  of  the  subjunctive,  and  to  W.  Bram- 
bach's  •'  Hiilfsbiichlein  fur  lateinische  Rechtschreibung  "  for  the 
treatment  of  prepositions  in  compounds.  Other  books  from 
which  I  have  derived  profit  will  be  found  quoted  in  the  body  of 
the  Grammar. 


PKEFACE.  vii 

I  would  express  my  sincere  thanks  to  my  friends  Professor 
F.  D.  Allen  and  Mr.  A.  L.  K.  Volkmann  for  their  kindly  criti- 
cism and  valuable  suggestions,  and  to  my  friend  Professor  J.  B. 
Greenough  for  his  generous  encouragement  and  many  useful 
hints.  I  also  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  my  indebtedness 
to  Mr.  John  Tetlow,  head-master  of  the  Girls'  Latin  and  High 
Schools  of  Boston,  and  to  Mr.  L.  C.  Hull,  of  the  Lawrenceville 
Academy  at  Lawrenceville,  New  Jersey,  for  their  kindness  in 
reading  my  manuscript  and  in  making  suggestions  by  which  the 
Grammar  has  profited  not  a  little.  In  verifying  the  references 
and  some  of  the  examples  I  have  been  greatly  aided  by  Mr.  H. 
W.  Haley  and  Mr.  F.  W.  Nicolson  of  the  graduate  department 
of  Harvard  University. 

HENRY  PREBLE. 

CAMBRIDGE,  November  3,  1888. 


NOTE. 


The  following  list  of  some  of  the  most  useful  recent  works  on  subjects 
connected  with  Latin  Grammar  is  given  for  the  assistance  of  those  who 
wish  to  carry  on  their  study  in  special  directions. 

ALLEN,  F.  D.  Remnants  of  Early  Latin.  Boston.  Ginn  & 
Heath.  1880. 

BRAMBACH,  W.  Die  Neugestaltuug  der  lateinischen  Orthogra- 
phic in  ihrem  Verhaltnis  zur  Schule.  Leipzig.  Teubuer.  1868. 

BRAMBACH,  W.  Hiilfsbiichlein  fiir  lateinische  Rechtschreibung. 
Leipzig.  Teubner.  1876. 

BRUGMANN,  K.  Grundriss  der  vergleichendeii  Grammatik  der 
indogeruianischen  Sprachen.  Strassburg.  K.  J.  Triibner.  1886. 

BUECHELER,  F.  Grundriss  der  lateinischen  Declination  (new 
edition,  by  J.  Windekilde).  Bonn.  E.  Strauss.  1879. 

CHRIST,  W.  Metrik  der  Griechen  und  Rbmer.  2.  Auflage.  Leip- 
zig. Teubner.  1879. 

CORSSEN,  W.  Ueber  Aussprache,  Vocalismus  und  Betonung  der 
lateinischeu  Sprache.  2.  Auflage.  Leipzig.  Teubuer.  1868-70. 

CURTTUS,  G.  Grundziige  der  griechischen  Etymologic.  5.  Auf- 
lage. Leipzig.  Teubner.  1879. 

Translated  by  A.  S.  Wilkins  and  E.  B.  England,  and  published  by  J. 
Murray,  London. 

DELBRUECK,  B.  Syntaktische  Forschungen.  Halle.  Buchhand- 
lung  des  Waisenhauses.  1871-79. 

DRAEGER,  A.  Historische  Syntax  der  lateinischen  Sprache.  2. 
Auflage.  Leipzig.  Teubner.  1878-81. 

ENGELHARDT,  M.  Die  lateinische  Konjugation  nach  den  Ergeb- 
nissen  der  Sprachvergleichung.  Berlin.  Weidmann.  1887. 

GREENOUGH,  J.  B.  Analysis  of  the  Latin  Subjunctive.  Cam- 
bridge. J.  Wilson  &  Son.  1870. 

HALE,  W.  G.  The  Sequence  of  Tenses  in  Latin  (with  supplemen- 
tary paper).  Baltimore.  I.  Friedenwald.  1887-88. 

HALE,  W.  G.  The  C?<m-Constructions,  their  History  and  Func- 
tions (in  two  parts).  Ithaca.  Cornell  University.  1887-88. 

HUEBXER,  E.  Grundriss  zu  Vorlesungen  iiber  die  lateinischen 
Grammatik.  2.  Auflage.  Berlin.  Weidmann.  1880. 

KUEHNER,  R.  Ausfiihrliche  Grammatik  der  lateinischen  Sprache. 
Hannover.  Hahnsche  Buchhandlung.  1877-78. 


NOTE.  IX 

LUEBBERT,  E.     Die  Syntax  von  Quom.     Breslau.    Hirt.     1870. 

MARX,  A.  Hiilfsbiichlein  fur  die  Aussprache  der  lateinischeiTVo- 
kale  in  positionslangen  Silben.  Berlin.  Weidmann.  1883. 

MUELLER,  C.  F.  W.  Plautinische  Prosodie  (with  a  supplementary- 
volume).  Berlin.  Weidmann.  1869-71. 

MUELLER,  L.  De  Re  Metrica  Poetarum  Latinorum  praeter  Plau- 
tum  et  Terentium  libri  septem.  Leipzig.  Teubner.  1861. 

NEUE,  F.  Formenlehre  der  lateinischen  Sprache.  2.  Auflage. 
Berlin.  Calvary.  1875-77. 

OSTHOFF,  H.  (and  BRUGMANN,  K.).  Morphologische  Unter- 
suchungen  auf  dem  Gebiete  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen.  Leip- 
zig. S.  Hirzel.  1878-81. 

ROBY,  H.  J.  A  Grammar  of  the  Latin  Language  from  Plautus  to 
Suetonius.  5th  edition.  London  and  New  York.  Macmillan.  1887. 

SAUSSURE,  F.  DE.  Me'moire  sur  le  systeme  primitif  des  voyelles 
dans  les  langues  indo-europe'ennes.  Leipzig.  Teubner.  1879. 

SCHLEICHER,  A.  Compendium  der  vergleichenden  Grammatik  der 
indogermauischen  Sprachen.  4.  Auflage.  Weimar.  H.  Boehlau. 
1876. 

SCHMALZ,  J.  H.  Lateinische  Syntax  und  Stilistik.  (I  wan  Miil- 
ler's  Handbuch  der  klassisehen  Altertumswissenschaft.  II.  B.  d)  and 
e) ).  Nb'rdlingen.  Becksche  Buchhandlung.  1885. 

SCHMIDT,  J.  H.  H.  Leitfaden  in  der  Rhythmik  und  Metrik  der 
classischen  Sprachen  fur  Schulen.  Leipzig.  Vogel.  1869. 

Translated  by  J.  W.  White,  and  published  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

SEELMANN,  E.  Die  Aussprache  des  Latein  nach  physiologisch- 
historischen  Grundsatzen.  Heilbronn.  Henninger.  1884. 

SIEVERS,  E.  Grundziige  der  Phonetik  zur  Einfuhrung  in  das  Stu- 
dium  der  Lautlehre  der  indogermanischen  Sprachen.  Leipzig.  Breit- 
kopf  und  Hartel.  1881. 

STOLZ,  F.  Lateinische  Laut-  und  Formenlehre.  (Iwan  Miiller's 
Handbuch  der  klassisehen  Altertumswissenschaft.  II.  B.  a)  b)  c)  ). 
Nb'rdlingen.  Becksche  Buchhandlung.  1885. 

VANICEK,  A.  Etymologisches  Wb'rterbuch  der  lateinischen  Spra- 
che. 2.  Auflage.  Leipzig.  Teubner.  1881. 

WEIL,  H.  De  Pordre  des  mots  dans  les  langues  anciennes  com- 
pare'es  aux  langues  modernes.  3me  Edition.  Paris.  F.  Vieweg. 
1879. 

Translated  by  C.  W.  Super,  and  published  by  Ginn  &  Co.,  Boston. 

WORDSWORTH,  J.  Fragments  and  Specimens  of  Early  Latin. 
Oxford.  Clarendon  Press.  1874. 


CONTENTS. 


PAGE 

Introductory  

1 

PRONUNCIATION     .... 

1-14 

Alphabet    ...... 

1-5 

Sounds  of  the  Letters  .     . 

5-7 

Syllables     

7-8 

Quantity 

8-9 

9-10 

Enclitics  and  Proclitics    . 

10-11 

Rules  of  Quantity    .    .    . 

11-14 

INFLECTION  

15-151 

Stems  and  Roots  .... 

15 

Phonetic  Changes    .     .     . 

15-20 

Parts  of  Speech  .     .    .    . 

21 

Nouns 

22-55 

Gender,  Number,  and 

Case  

22-25 

Declension    .... 

25-50 

First  Declension    . 

28-29 

Second  Declension  . 

29-33 

Third  Declension    . 

33-47 

Case  Forms    .     . 

41-43 

Gender  .... 

43-45 

Fourth  Declension  . 

47-49 

Fifth  Declension     . 

49-50 

Irregular  Nouns  .     . 

51-55 

Adjectives  

55-74 

First  and  Second  De- 

clension     .     .     . 

56-59 

Third  Declension  .     . 

59-63 

Numerals      .... 

63-70 

Comparison  .... 

71-74 

Comparison    of    Ad- 

Woi 

verbs     .... 

75-76 

Si 

Pronouns   

76-87 

76-77 

c< 

PACT 

Demonstrative  .  .  .  77-81 
Intensive  ....  81-82 
Rel.,  Interrog.,  and 

Indef 82-85 

Possessive  ....  85 
Correlatives,  table  of .  86 
Patrial  Pronouns  .  .  87 

Verbs 87-151 

Voice,  Mood  .  .  .  88-89 
Tense,  Number,  and 

Person  ....  90 

Noun  and  Adjeetiye 

Forms  ....    90-92 
Conjugation      .     .     .  92-120 
Tense  Stems .     .    .    92-94 
Personal  Endings  .    94-95 

Sum 95-97 

Possum     ....    97-99 
The  Four  Conjuga- 
tions ....  99-117 
Remarks  on  Forms  117-119 
Periphrastic   Con- 
jugations .     .  119-120 
Stem   Formation   in 

3d  Conj.    .    .     .  120-124 
Lasts  of    Verbs  ac- 
cording to  their 
Stem  Formation  124-136 
Irregular  Verbs  .     .  136-146 
Defective  Verbs       .  146-150 
Impersonal  Verbs    .  150-151 
WORD-FORMATION    .    .    .  151-184 
pie    and    Derivative 

Words 152-175 

Compound  Words .     .     .  175-184 


CONTENTS. 


XI 


SYNTAX   184-383 

The  Sentence  ....  184-186 
Rules  of  Agreement     .  186-200 
Subject  and  Verb   .     .  186-189 
Appositives   and   Pre- 
dicate Nouns    .     .  189-193 
Adjectives      ....  193-195 
Relative  Pronouns  .     .  195-198 
Constructio     ad     Sen- 
sum     198-200 
The  Cases   .     .              .  200-246 

with  ut,  ne,  quin, 
quominus  .     .     .  288-298 
Relative  Clauses  (not 
Purpose  or  Re- 
sult)    ....  298-301 
Clauses    with    dum, 
donee,  quoad     .  302-304 
Clauses  of  Proviso  .  304-305 
Clauses    with    ante- 

Nominative    ....          200 
Genitive     201-211 

quam   ....  305-307 

Dative  211-219 

ouani  utit  etc      307—309 

Accusative      ....  219-224 
Vocative    ....       224-225_ 

Clauses     with     cum 
hfouom)                   .SOQ-^lfi 

Ablative    225-239 

Indirect  Discourse       316—329 

Place  and  Time  .     .     .  239-243 
Cases    with     Preposi- 
tions     243-246 
Peculiarities  of  Usage  .  246-261 
Nouns    246-248 

Ind.  Dis.  proper   .  316-324 
Indirect  Questions  324-326 
Causal        Clauses 
with        quod, 
guia,  etc.  .     .  326-328 

Adjectives      ....  248-250 
Pronouns    250-261 
Personal    and    Pos- 
sessive.    .     .     .  250-251 
Reflexive  and  Inten- 
sive    251-256 

Implied  Ind.  Disc.  328-329 
Sub  junc.    of    At- 
traction    .    .          329 
Tenses  of  the   Sub- 
junctive  .     .    .  330-332 
Imperative  Mood    .    .  332-333 

Demonstrative             256-257 

Infinitive    333-340 

Relative      ....  257-258 
Indefinite    ....  258-261 
The  Verb     261-350 

As  Subject      .    .    .  334^-335 
Complementary  .    .          335 
As  Object  ....  336-337 

Tenses  261-266 

With  dicor,    videor, 

The  Subiunctive             267—332 

etc  337 

Hortatory  ....  267-268 
Ontativp                         2fi8—  2fiQ 

Other  Uses      ...          338 
Omitted  339 

Potential    ....  269-271 
Dubitative  ....  271-272 
Conditional  Clauses    272-277 
Concessive  Clauses  .  277-281 

Tenses  of  Infinitive  339-340 
Substantive  Clauses    .  340-341 
Participles     ....  342-345 
Gerund  and  Gerundive  345-348 
Supine  348-349 

son  281-283 
Clauses  of  Purpose  .  283-285 
Clauses  of  Result    .  286-288 

Different  Constructions 
of  Purpose  ...          350 
Adverbs  .                       .  350-352 

Xll 


CONTEXTS. 


Prepositions    ....  352-359 
Connectives     ....  359-368 
Copulatives                     359-362 

Figures  of  Versification  .  386-388 
The  Different  Metres      .  388-400 
Dactylic     388-391 

Disjunctives  ....  362-363 
Adversatives       .    .    .  364-365 
Atqul  and  tamen     .    .          365 
Illatives     366 

Trochaic  and  Iambic  .  391-397 
Anapaestic     ....  397-398 
Bacchiac  and  Cretic     .  398-399 
Choriambic  and  Ionic  .  399-400 

Words  for  "  For  ".    .          366 
Quidem  sane   etc           367—368 

Peculiarities     of     Early 
Verse                            400-401 

Etiam  and  quoque   .     .          368 
Interrogative  Particles  368-371 
Double  Questions   .    .  370-371 
Yes  and  No   .    .    .    .          372 
Interjections             .       372-373 

Saturnian  Verse     .     .     .  402-403 
Logaoedic  Verse     .     .     .          403 
Metres    of   Horace    and 
Catullus      ....  404-411 
APPENDIX                          .  41°-4°7 

Arrangement  of  Words  373-383 
The  Period    ....  377-379 
Anaphora   and   Chias- 

Grammatical Figures  .     .  412-415 
Modes  of  Reckoning  .    .  416-422 
Time     416-419 

mus                  .    .  379-380 

Calendar     ....          419 

Minor    Points   of    Or- 
der        380-383 

Money,  Weights,   and 
Measures     .    .     .  420-422 

VERSIFICATION     ....  383-411 
Different  Kinds  of  Verse  384-385 
Thesis  and  Arsis    .    .     .  385-386 
Caesura  and  Diaeresis     .          386 

Roman  Names  ....  422-423 
Abbreviations    ....  423-424 
Principal  Latin  Writers  .  424-427 
INDEX.                                .  429-453 

LATIN  GRAMMAR. 


INTRODUCTORY.    - 

1.  GKAMMAR  is  the  study  of  the  way  in  which  thought 
is  expressed  by  means  of  WORDS  combined  in  SENTENCES. 

LATIN  GRAMMAR  is  the  study  of  the  way  in  which 
the  Romans  thus  expressed  thought. 

2.  Grammar  is  naturally  divided  into  five  parts,   ac- 
cording to  the  point  of  view  from  which  words  are  treated, 
as  follows  :  — 

i.  PRONUNCIATION,  treating  of  the  letters  and  the  sounds 
of  which  words  are  composed. 

ii.  INFLECTION,  treating  of  the  changes  of  form  which 
words  undergo  to  show  how  they  are  related  to  each  other. 

iii.  WORD-FORMATION,  treating  of  the  way  in  which 
words  have  grown  and  the  elements  of  which  they  con- 
sist. 

iv.  SYNTAX,  treating  of  the  way  in  which  words  are  put 
together  in  sentences. 

v.  VERSIFICATION,  treating  of  the  way  in  which  words 
are  arranged,  according  to  the  length  of  their  syllables, 
to  form  verse. 

PRONUNCIATION  (Enuntiatio). 
ALPHABET   (Elementa). 

3.  The   Latin   alphabet   consists   properly  of   twenty- 
three  letters  :  A  (pronounced  ah),  B  (bay*),  C  (kay),  D 

*  The  slight  vanish  heard  in  the  sound  of  English  "  ay  "  does  not  exist 
in  Latin.  "Eh"  more  exactly  represents  the  Latin  sound,  but  "bay," 


2  PRONUNCIATION. 

(day),  E  (ay),  F  (ef),  G  (gay),  H  (hah),  I  (ee),  K  (kah), 
L  (el),  M  (em),  N  (en),  O  (oh),  P  (pay),  Q  (koo), 
R  (air),  S  (ess),  T  (tay),  V  (oo),  X  (ix),  and  two  taken, 
during  Cicero's  life-time,  from  the  Greeks,  —  Y  (ii  *) 
and  Z  (zeta,  pronounced  zayta).  These  two  letters  were 
used  only  in  foreign,  especially  Greek,  words. 

a.  The  Latin  alphabet  as  it  has  conie  down  to  us  in  inscrip- 
tions consisted  of  capital  letters  only.     There  are,  however,  in- 
dications that  the  Romans  had  for  every-day  writing  some  sort 
of  running  hand,  and  traces  of  this  seem  to  exist  in  the  Latin 
manuscripts  of  the  Middle  Ages,  from  which  are  derived  the 
letters  now  used  for  printing  both  English  and  Latin. 

b.  The  Romans  used  I  and  V  as  both  vowels  and  consonants, 
calling  them  in  the  latter  use  I  consond?is  and  V  co?isondns  re- 
spectively.    Modern  usage  confines  V  to  the  consonant  use,  and 
introduces  U  as  the  vowel.     It  has  also  been  the  custom  for  a 
century  or  more  to  use  the  form  J  for  I  consondns  and  to  con- 
fine I  to  the  vowel  use,  but  the  more  common  usage  of  the  pre- 
sent day  rejects  J  and  uses  I,  as  the  Romans  did,  as  both  vowel 
and  consonant. 

NOTE.  It  is  not  so  inconsistent  as  it  would  at  first  sight  seem  thus  to 
distinguish  U  and  V,  but  reject  J.  This  form  J  is  a  wholly  modern  one, 
unknown  to  even  the  latest  Romans,  while  a  round  form  of  V  does  occur  in 
the  early  manuscripts,  though  no  distinction  of  vowel  and  consonant  is  ob- 
served between  it  and  the  sharp  form.  Practically,  also,  the  distinction  of 
U  and  V  is  of  much  greater  convenience  to  the  learner  than  that  of  I 
and  J. 

c.  K  disappeared  from  use  very  early  except  before  a  at  the 
beginning  of  a  few  words,  as  Kaeso,  Kalendae,  Karthago,  and 
its  place  was  taken  by  C.      Even  the  words  mentioned  were 
often  spelled  with  C,  except  when  abbreviated. 

d.  C  originally  had  the  sound  of  our  g,  and  the  form  G  was 
not  developed  till  later,  when  K  had  disappeared,  and  confu- 
sion arose  from  the  use  of  C  to  represent  two  sounds.     Then  the 

"kay,"  etc.,  seem  less  likely  to  confuse  the  pupil  than  "beh,"   "keh," 
"gheh,»ete. 
*  I.  e.j  German  U  or  French  u. 


ALPHABET.  3 

new  form  G  took  the  old  sound  of  C,  'and  C  kept  the  sound  of  K 
which  it  had  acquired.  In  the  abbreviation  of  certain  names 
beginning  with  G,  however,  C  was  retained,  as  C.  =  Gaius,  CN. 
=  Gnaeus,  etc. 

e.  X  is  equivalent  to  cs  or  gs,  and  except  in  compounds  is  al- 
ways written  for  them. 

/.  II  and  II  are  generally  written  (and  spoken)  as  i  and  l  re- 
spectively, even  in  compounds,  as  Vei  (for  Veil),  consill  (for 
consilil),  cdnicio,  abicio*  etc.  (from  con,  ab,  etc.,  and  iacio). 
But  II  is  frequent  in  the  plural  of  common  nouns  and  adjectives. 

4.  The  alphabet  is  divided  into 

i.  VOWELS  (litter ae  vocales),  which  by  themselves  re- 
present full  articulate  sounds. 

ii.  CONSONANTS  (litter ae  consonantes),  so  called  be- 
cause to  make  articulate  sounds  they  have  to  be  uttered 
with  a  vowel. 

5.  The  vowels  are  a,  e,  i,  o,  u,  y.f 

6.  When  two  vowels  come  together  in  one  syllable  the 
combination  is  called  a  DIPHTHONG  (dipJithongus). 

7.  The  diphthongs  occurring  in  Latin  are  (common) 
ae,  au,  oe ;  (rare)  ei,  eu,  ui. 

a.  ei  occurs  perhaps  only  in  the  interjection  ei  (hei)  ;  ui  is 
almost  as  rare,  being  found  in  the  pronouns  cui  and  hide,  and  the 
interjection  hui.  In  early  Latin  ai,  oi,  and  ou  also  occur. 

8.  Occasionally  these  vowels,  instead  of  being  united 
into  a  diphthong,  have  each  its  own  syllable.      The  se- 
cond vowel  is  then  generally  marked  with  the  so-called 
diaeresis,  thus   ( •  • )  ;    as,  aeris,  genitive   singular  of  a&r 
(air),  in  distinction  from   aeris,  genitive  singular  of  aes 
(copper). 

*  For  the   quantity  of  the  first  vowel  in  these  compounds  see  299,  a. 

t  The  vowels  are  sometimes  classified  as  OPEN  (a),  MEDIAL  (e  and  o), 
and  CLOSE  (i,  u,  and  y).  Furthermore,  e,  i,  and  y  are  sometimes  spoken 
of  as  SHARP  or  CLEAR,  a,  o,  and  U  as  DULL,  with  regard  to  the  character 
of  their  sounds.  A  distinction  is  also  found  in  some  grammars  between  i, 
u,  and  y  as  SOFT  vowels,  and  a,  e,  and  o  as  HARD  vowels. 


4  PRONUNCIATION. 

9.  The  consonants  are  divided  into  — 

i.  SEMI-VOWELS  (semivocales)  :  f,  i  consonans,  1,  m, 
n,  r,  s,  v. 

ii.  MUTES  (mutae)  :  b,  c,  d,  g,  k,  p,  q,  t. 

iii.  DOUBLE  CONSONANTS  (litterae  duplices) :  x,  z. 

a.  his  properly  not  a  letter  at  all,  but  only  the  sign  of  the 
rough  breathing. 

NOTE.  The  mutes  are  so  called,  because  they  represent  no  articulate 
sound  without  a  vowel ;  the  semi-vowels,  because  they  stand  between  the 
mutes  and  the  vowels  in  articulateness.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  names 
of  the  semi-vowels  begin  with  the  vowel  element,  while  the  names  of  the 
mutes  end  with  it. 

10.  The  semi-vowels  are  subdivided  into  — 

i.  LIQUIDS  (liquidae,  i.  e.,  smooth  sounds) :  1,  m,  n,  r, 
of  which  m  and  n  are  also  called  NASALS  (jiasales,  i.  e., 
nose  sounds). 

11.  SPIRANTS  {splrantes,  i.  e.,  breathing  sounds)  :  f,  i,  s, 
v,  of  which  s  is  also  called  a  SIBILANT  (sibilaiis,  i.  e., 
hissing  sound). 

a.  The  double  consonant  z  is  also  a  spirant  and  a  sibilant. 

11.  The  mutes  are  subdivided  into 

i.  SMOOTH  (tenues  *)  :  c,  k,  q,     p,    t. 

11.  MIDDLE  (mediae) :  g,         b,    d. 
[iii.  ROUGH  or  ASPIRATES  (asplratae)  :  ch,     ph,    th.]f 

a.  The  mutes  ph  and  th  and  the  breathing  h  are  also  spi- 
rants. Spirants  are  sometimes  called  FKICATIVES. 

12.  The  consonants  are  also  divided,  according  to  the 
organ  of  speech  chiefly  used  in  uttering  them,  into 

i.  PALATALS J  (jmlatalcs,  i.  e.,  palate  letters):  c,  k, 
q,  g,  1,  and  n  (before  a  palatal). 

*  This  word  really  means  "fine"  or  "thin,"  and  was  applied  to  the 
mutes  through  a  mistaken  analogy. 

t  The  aspirates  were  not  used  until  just  before  Cicero's  time.  They 
were  at  first  sounded  as  the  smooth  mutes  followed  by  the  rough  breathing, 
but  soon  became  simple  sounds  (see  18,  g). 

}  Sometimes  wrongly  called  gutturals  (i.  e.,  throat  letters). 


SOUNDS   OF  THE   LETTERS.  5 

ii.  DENTALS  *  (dentales,  i.  e.,  'teeth  letters)  :  t,  d,  s,  r, 
1,  and  n  (not  before  a  palatal). 

iii.  LABIALS  (labiales,  i.  e.,  lip  letters)  :  p,  b,  f,  v,  m. 

a.  x  is  a  combination  of  a  palatal,  c  or  g,  and  a  dental,  s  ; 
z  is  a  combination  of  two  dentals,  d  and  s. 

13.  The  letters  are  further  distinguished,  according  to 
their  fullness  of  sound,  as 

i.  SONANTS  {sonantes)  :  the  vowels,  and  b,  d,  g,  i,  1,  m, 
n,  r,  v,  z. 

ii.  SURDS  (surdae)  :  c,  f  ,  k,  p,  q,  s,  t,  x. 

14.  The  various  classifications  of   consonants  may  be 
tabulated  thus  :  — 


Palatals. 

Dentals. 

Labials. 

(  Smooth  (surd)        c,  k,  q 

t 

Mutes  j  Middle  (sonant)          g 

d 

(  Aspirates  (surd)         ch. 

(th 
Spirants  -> 

Ph 

Double                                      X  (surd) 

/>Z  (sonant) 

Sibilants  J 

Semi-    Liquids                         i  (sonant)/ 

-    Is  (surd) 
1,  r 

f  (surd),  V  (sonant) 

8  s  (  (sonant)  (  Nasals  :      n 

n 

m 

SOUNDS  OF  THE   LETTERS. 

15.  The  letters  in  Latin  have  each  only  one  sound. 
The  sounds  of  the  vowels  have  each  two  grades,  the  long 
(producta)  and  the  short  (correpta). 

16.  The  vowels  are  pronounced  as  follows  :  — 
a  long  as  in  father,  a  short  as  in  Cuba  ; 

e  long  as  in  they,  e  short  like  a  in  desperate  ;  t 
i  long  as  in  machine,  i  short  as  in  cigar  ;  t 
o  long  as  in  note,  o  short  as  in  obey  ;  $ 

*  Sometimes  called  linguals  (i.  e.,  tongue  letters). 

t  The  sounds  of  short  e  and  i  are  therefore  nearly  but  not  quite  the 
same  as  in  English  get  and  pin. 

\  The  sound  of  O  is  particularly  hard  to  illustrate  in  English,  and  the 
examples  given  are  only  approximately  correct.  The  Latin  long  O  is  a 
pure  sound,  having  no  tendency  towards  the  oo  sound  heard  at  the  end  of 
our  long  o  ;  those  who  have  heard  the  word  "  coat  "  pronounced  by  care- 
less speakers  in  New  England  can  get  therefrom  a  clear  idea  of  the  Latin 
short  O. 


b  PRONUNCIATION. 

u  long  like  oo  in  food,  u  short  like  oo  in  hood.; 
y  long  like  the  long  sound  of  French  u  or  German  ii,  y 
short  like  the  short  sound  of  the  same. 

17.  The  diphthongs  have  the  sounds  produced  by  run- 
ning together  into  one  sound  the  vowels  of  which  they  are 
composed.     Thus :  — 

ae  is  sounded  like  ay  =  yes  ;  (ai  nearly  so)  ; 

au  is  sounded  like  ow  in  how ; 

ei  is  sounded  like  ei  in  eight ; 

oe  is  sounded  like  oi  in  coin  ;  (oi  nearly  so) ; 

ui  is  sounded  nearly  like  wee  in  sweet ; 

eu  is  sounded  like  eh-oo  (i.  e.,  nearly  as  in    English 

feud,  avoiding   the    tendency  to  make   a   short  i  of 

the  e). 

a.  The  early  diphthong  ou,  having  a  sound  between  o  and  u, 
soon  passed  everywhere  into  one  or  the  other  of  these  letters. 

b.  During  the  early  empire  ae  and  oe  became  weakened  so 
as  to  resemble  long  e  in  sound,  and  were  thus  often  confused 
with  it  in  spelling. 

18.  The  consonants  are  sounded  as  in  English,  but 
c  and  g  are  always  hard,  as  in  can  and  get. 

s  is  always  sharp,  as  in  sin. 

t  is  always  pronounced  as  in  tent. 

v  has  the  sound  of  English  w  in  want. 

i  consonans  has  the  sound  of  English  y  in  year. 

a.  When  a  consonant  is  doubled  both  letters  are  distinctly 
sounded  ;  as  in  lup-piter,  bel-lum,  fer-rd. 

b.  After  g,  q,  or  s,  u  if  followed  by  a  vowel  unites  closely 
with  these  letters,  producing  the  sound  heard  in  English  san- 
guine, queen,  suavity  ;  as  in  lingua,  quarum,  suaded. 

But  in  the  pronoun  suus,  sua,  suum,    u  is  a  full  vowel,  ex- 
cept sometimes  in  verse.     Suns  thus  has  two  syllables,  su-us. 

c.  n  before  c,  g,  k,  q,  x,  has  the  sound  heard  in  English 
anclwr,  anguish,  anxious  /  as  in  anceps,  ungo,  inquit,  anxius. 

d.  m  and  s  after  a  vowel  at  the  end  of  a  word  were  sounded 
feebly  ;  as  in  bonum,  plenus. 


SYLLABLES.  7 

e.  n  before  S  also  had  a  feeble  sound,  producing  the  effect  of 
nasalizing  and  lengthening  the  preceding  vowel ;  as  in  consul, 
censor,  amans. 

f.  The  Romans  had  a  tendency  to  pronounce  final  d  like  t, 
and  also  b  final  or  before  s  like  p  ;  as  in  hand,  ab,  urbs. 

g.  The  aspirated  sounds  ch,  ph,  and  th,  when  first  intro- 
duced into  Latin  (about  100  B.  c.),  had  the  sounds  of  kh,  ph, 
and   th  in  English  inkhorn,  upheave,  hothouse.     Afterwards 
ph  came    to  be  pronounced  as  in  English  phantom,  and  ch 
to  have  the  sound  of   the    German   guttural  ch,  a  somewhat 
rougher  sound  than  English  ch  in  character,  while  the  sound 
of  th  approached  that  of  simple  t. 

h.  e  in  est  (is)  was  elided  in  prose  as  well  as  verse,  when  the 
word  before  it  ended  in  a  vowel  or  m,  unless  the  est  was  em- 
phatic. Thus  :  magna  est  Diana  JSphesiorum  (pronounced  ma- 
gna'st),  hoc  bellum  gerendum  est  (pronounced  gerendum'st).* 

SYLLABLES  (Syllabae). 

19.  Every  Latin  word  has  as  many  syllables  as  it  has 
separate  vowels  (or  diphthongs).      Every  syllable  ends 
with   a   vowel,    so   far  as   is    allowed   by   the   following 
rules :  — 

20.  A  single  consonant  between  two  vowels  is  joined  to 
the  second  vowel.     Thus :  ml-les,  so-nus. 

21.  The  double  consonants  x  and  z,  and  combinations 
of  consonants  which  can  begin  a  Latin  (or  English)  word, 
also  mn,  are  joined  to  the  following  vowel.    Thus :  re-xit, 
gci-za,  z-gno-sco,  a-plau-stre,  a-mnis. 

a.  In  Greek  words  the  Greek  usage  is  followed,  by  which 
more  combinations  of  letters  can  begin  a  word  than  in  Latin.  We 

*  As  in  all  languages,  many  variations  from  these  mechanical  rules  oc- 
curred in  Latin  as  pronounced  by  the  Romans.  With  the  extinction  of  the 
nation  disappeared,  of  course,  the  exact  pronunciation  of  their  language. 
The  careful  student,  however,  will  observe,  as  he  advances,  numerous  facts 
in  the  growth  of  Latin  forms,  which  shed  light  upon  the  finer  points  of 
pronunciation. 


8  PRONUNCIATION. 

write,  therefore,  Te-cmes-sa,  cy-cmis,  etc.     Even  Phcu-tnae  is 
found,  although  tn  cannot  begin  a  Greek  word. 

22.  Other  combinations  of   consonants  are  separated, 
the  first  letter  being  joined  to  the  preceding  vowel,  all  the 
others  to  the  vowel  which  follows.    Thus :  ac-tus,  pran-di- 
um,  in-con-sul-to,  vic-trix,  ex-cer-ptum,  mon-stra. 

23.  Compounds  are  separated  into  their  parts.    Thus : 
ab-eo,   slc-ut.       So   also   the   apparent    compounds    like 
quis-piam. 

24.  But  compounds  are  treated  like  simple  words  in 
the  two  following  instances  :  — 

a.  If  the  first  part  has  lost  an  ending.    Thus :  ma-yna-ni-mus 
(inagnus-\-  animus),  lon^gae-vos  (longus -\-aevo7ri). 

b.  If  the  second  part  would  otherwise  begin  with  a  combina- 
tion of  consonants  impossible  at  the  beginning  of  a  word.   Thus : 
pror-sus  ( pro  -j-  versus).     The  first  consonant  in  this  case  is 
almost  always  r. 

25.  When  the  first  part  of  a  compound  ended  with  the 
same  letter  with  which  the  second  part  began,  the  first  of 
these  letters  was  dropped.     Thus :  trar^scmbo  (trans  + 
scribo),  dirspicio  (dis  -J-  specio). 

NOTE  1.  The  last  syllable  of  a  word  is  called  the  ULTIMATE,  the  last 
but  one  the  PENULTIMATE  or  PENULT,  the  last  but  two  the  ANTEPENULTI- 
MATE OF  ANTEPENULT. 

NOTE  2.  A  syllable  preceded  by  a  vowel  is  called  PURE  (pur a),  as  -us 
in  deus  ;  by  a  consonant,  IMPURE  (impwra),  as  -stat  in  constat. 

NOTE  3.  An  initial  syllable  ending-  with  a  vowel,  and  any  other  syllable 
beginning  with  a  vowel,  is  called  OPEN  ;  other  syllables  are  called  CLOSE. 
Thus  in  deus  both  syllables  are  open,  in  obstat  both  are  close. 

QUAOTTTY  (Quantitas). 

26.  By  QUANTITY  is  meant  the  relative  time  required 
to  pronounce  a  letter  or  syllable.     Quantity  is  either  LONG 
(producta),  SHORT  (correptti),  or  COMMON  (anceps). 

a.  The  time  required  to  pronounce  a  short  syllable  is  called  a 
mora.  A  long  syllable  requires  twice  as  much  time,  or  two 
morae. 


QUANTITY.  —  ACCENT.  9 

27.  Syllables  are  long,  shorfc,  or  common  BY  NATURE 
(natura  productae,  correptae,  ancipites)  when  their  quan- 
tity is  the  same  as  that  of  the  vowel  (or  diphthong)  con- 
tained in  them.     Thus  :  eadem,  consults. 

28.  A  syllable  is  long   BY  POSITION  (positione  pro- 
ducta)  when  it  contains  a  short  vowel  followed  by  two  or 
more   consonants   or  by  one   of   the  double  consonants. 
Thus  :  amsaitis,  abster^,  extra. 

29.  But  a  syllable  containing  a  short  vowel  followed 
by  a  mute  with  a  liquid  after  it  is  common  by  position* 
unless  the  mute  belongs  to  the  first  part  of  a  compound. 
Thus  in  patris  the  first  syllable  is  common,  but  in  oblatum 
(06  -{~  latum)  it  is  long. 

a.  In  real  Latin  words  only  1  and  r  after  a  mute  thus  make  a 
syllable  common,  but  in  Greek  words  m  and  n  also  do  so. 
Thus  the  first  syllable  in  Tecmessa  is  common. 

NOTE.  The  pupil  should  be  cautioned  that  short  vowels  are  always 
pronounced  short,  even  when  they  occur  in  syllables  which  are  long  or 
common. 

ACCENT  (Accentus). 

30.  By  ACCENT  is  meant  the  way  in  which  some  one 
syllable  of  every  word  is  uttered  to  make  it  more  promi- 
nent than  the  other  syllables. 

a.  The  Latin  accent  was  of  essentially  the  same  nature  as 
English  accent ;  that  is,  it  consisted  of  a  stress  of  voice  upon 
the  accented  syllable,  but  was  not  so  strongly  marked  as  in 
English.  On  the  other  hand,  the  higher  tone  or  pitch  with 
which  an  accented  syllable  is  uttered  was  more  marked  in  Latin 
than  in  English,  f 

*  There  are  also  a  few  cases  of  common  vowels.  The  quantity  of  these 
was  originally  between  long  and  short,  and  so  in  poetry  they  are  sometimes 
used  as  long,  sometimes  as  short ;  in  prose  they  are  pronounced  short. 

t  The  Roman  grammarians  of  the  early  empire  tried  to  introduce  an 
artificial  system  of  accents  based  upon  the  Greek  distinctions  of  acute, 


10  PRONUNCIATION. 

31.  Words  of  one  syllable  are  regarded  as  accented ; 
as,  me',  sed,pdrs. 

But  see  34-36. 

32.  Words  of  two  syllables  are  accented  upon  the  first 
syllable  ;  as,  pa'-ter,  ve'-jii. 

33.  Words  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  accented 
upon  the  penult  if  that  is  long  (either  by  nature  or  by 
position),  otherwise  upon  the  antepenult;*  as,  i-md'-go, 
a-mdn-tis,  but  do-mi-nus,  te-ne-brae. 

a.  In  early  Latin  the  accent  could  stand  farther  back  than 
the  antepenult. 

ENCLITICS  AXD  PROCLITICS. 

34.  Some  short  words  are  so  closely  connected  with 
the  word  before  or  after  them  that  they  have  no  accent  of 
their  own. 

35.  Words  thus  closely  attached  to  the  word  preceding 
them  are  called  ENCLITICS  {enclitica),  and  are  joined  in 
writing  with  the  preceding  word.     The  syllable  before  an 
enclitic  in  all  cases  takes  the  accent.    Thus :  virl  bonl  cla- 
ri'que,   good  and   famous  men ;     Graecdne  an  Romano, 
est  mulier,  is  the  woman  Greek  or  Roman  ? 

a.  The  commonest  enclitics  are  the  following  particles  and 
suffixes :  que,  and ;  ve,  or ;  ne  (interrog.  particle)  ;  ce  (demons, 
suffix)  ;  and  the  suffixes  attached  to  pronouns  to  strengthen  them 
(see  179,  b  and  c,  and  186,  a)  :  met,  pe  (ppe),  pse,  pte,  te. 

b.  Inde  is  enclitic  in  delude,  proinde,  subinde,  etc.,  thus  throw- 
ing the  accent  upon  the  first  syllable. 

36.  PROCLITICS  (proditica)  are  pronounced  as  part  of 
the  following  word,  without  affecting  the  accent.      The 
chief  proclitics  are  the  negatives  and  the  prepositions  of 

grave,  and  circumflex  accents,  but  the  treatment  of  this  system  does  not 
belong  in  a  school  grammar.  See  Miiller's  Handbuch  der  klassischen  Alter  - 
tumswissenschqft ;  B. :  "  Lateinische  Grammatik,"  pp.  192  ff. 

*  For  one  or  two  classes  of  exceptions,  see  Gen.  and  Voc.  of  nouns  in 
-ius  and  -ium,  97,  5,  a ;  certain  compounds  of  facio,  298,  6. 


ft 

RULES   OF   QUANTITY.  11 

one  syllable.     Thus :   non  omnis  moriar^  I  shall  not  all 
die ;  ad  urbem  eamus,  let  us  go  to  town. 

a.  Proclitics  receive  an  accent  if  emphatic ;  so  also  the  prepo- 
sitions when  separated  from  their  nouns ;  as,  in  Gallorum  fines 
profectus  est,  he  set  forth  into  the  country  of  the  Gauls. 

NOTE.  The  accent  of  a  compound  word  of  more  than  two  syllables 
often  helps  fix  the  quantity  of  a  penultimate  vowel  in  the  simple  word  of 
two  syllables.  Thus,  the  accent  of  insd'nus,  conscri'bo,  intellegit,  fixes  the 
quantity  of  the  penult  of  sanus,  scribo,  lego,  in  the  mind,  because  accent, 
which  belongs  also  to  English  words,  is  easier  to  remember  than  quantity. 

RULES  OF  QUANTITY. 

37.  Every  vowel  is  pronounced  long  or  short,  accord- 
ing to  its  own  quantity,  without  regard  to  the  kind  of 
syllable  in  which  it  stands.     The  few  common  vowels  are 
pronounced  short  in  prose. 

NOTE  1.  Long  vowels  are  marked  thus  (~)  in  this  grammar,  com- 
mon vowels  thus  (•*) ;  short  vowels  are  left  unmarked,  except  when  the 
mark  (~)  is  useful  to  contrast  them  sharply  with  a  long  vowel. 

NOTE  2.  Vowels  followed  by  two  or  more  consonants  (hidden  quanti- 
ties) are  treated  as  short,  when  their  quantity  has  not  been  ascertained, 
at  least  with  probability. 

38.  A  vowel  before  another  vowel  or  before  a  diph- 
thong is  short ;  as,  e  in  meus  ;  i  in  patriae. 

a.  The  breathing  h  has  no  effect  as  regards  quantity.     Thus, 
e  in  veho  is  short. 

b.  Exceptions :  — 

1.  i  is  long  in  dlus  (for  divos). 

2.  The  first  vowel  is  common  in  Diana,  Eheu,  ohe. 
For  other  exceptions  see  146,  and  246! 

c.  Greek  words  regularly  retain  their  original  quantity ;  as, 
Aeneas,  Ixwn,  heroes. 

d.  But  a  few  words  which  have  ft  in  Greek  have  e  in  Latin. 
These  are  chorea,  Malea,  gynaeceum.    So  some  have  i  in  Latin ; 
as,  academia.     Balineum  and  probably  platea  seem  to  have 
been  always  used  with  the  penultimate  vowel  short.    These  vari- 
ations were  due  to  dialectic  forms  in  Greek. 


12  PRONUNCIATION. 

NOTE.     The  Greek  letters  are  in  most  cases  represented  by  the  corre- 
sponding Latin  letters ;  but  v  is  represented  by  y,  K  by  C,  and  <f>,  x>  and  0, 
by  ph,  ch,  th,  respectively,  and  the  diphthongs  are  reproduced  thus :  — 
oi  by    ae, 

-.     (I  usually,  e  rarely,  before  a  consonant, 

(e       "        I       "       before  a  vowel, 
oi  by  oe,  av  by  au,  ev  by  eu,  ou  by  u. 

39.  All  diphthongs  are  long  ;  as,  durum,  poenae. 

a.  But  ae  in  prae  when  compounded  with  words  beginning 
with  a  vowel  is  short ;  as,  praeacutus. 
This  diphthong  is  sometimes  long  in  Statius. 

40.  All  vowels  produced  by  contraction  (see  61)  are 
long,  whether  consonants  had  originally  stood  between 
them  or  not ;  as,  atlus  (for  aliius),  cogo  (for  coa</6),  iu- 
nior  (for  iuvenwr"). 

41.  All  vowels  before  i  consonans,  nf,  ns,  gm,  and  gn, 
are  long ;  as,  Maia,  Pompeius^  eius,  cuius,  amans,  Infero, 
agmen,  regnum. 

a.  Exceptions   are    biiitffus,    quadriiugus,    Greek   words   in 
-egma,  and  some  others. 

42.  All  vowels  before  nt  and  nd  are  short ;  as,  amantis, 
portendo. 

a.  But  in  nundinae,  nondum,  prendo,  the  vowel  is  long  by 
contraction. 

b.  Further  exceptions   are  undecim,  qumdecim,  vendo,  vin- 
demia,  and  some  Greek  proper  names  like  Epamiriondas. 

For  vowels  before  sc  in  inceptive  verbs,  see  237,  a. 

43.  I  is  always  long  before  v,  except  in  nivis  and  the 
other  case-forms  of  nix,  snow. 

44.  The  quantity  of  a  vowel  remains  the  same  in  all 
forms  of  a  given  word  and  its  derivatives,  unless  some 
special  cause  comes  in  to  change  it. 

a.  Instances  are  — 

1.  Nominatives  in  -ns  from  oblique  cases  with  short  vowels ; 
as,  amans,  but  amantis;  mens,  but  mentl ;  docens,  but  docentem. 


SPECIAL   RULES   OF   QUANTITY.  13 

2.  Cases  where  the  long  vowel  of  a  simple  word  is  shortened 
in  a  derivative  because  the  accent  has  left  it ;  as,  a'cer,  acerbus. 

Special  Rules. 

FINAL  SYLLABLES  AND  MONOSYLLABLES. 
I.  Vowels. 

45.  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  vowel  are  long ;  as,  de, 
me,  qul. 

a.  Exceptions  are  the  enclitic  particles  ne,  qiie,  ve,  ce,  pe 
(ppe),  pse,  pte,  which  are  short. 

46.  Final  a,  e,  y  are  generally  short ;  final  i,  o,  u  are 
almost  always  long.* 

a.  Exceptions  :  — 

(1.)  Final  a  is  long  in  the  ablative  case  (see  91),  and  usually 
in  verbs  and  particles,  but  short  in  eia,  ita,  quia,  and  puta  (  = 
suppose). 

(2.)  Final  e  is  long  in  the  fifth  declension  (see  132)  and  in 
the  imperative  of  the  second  conjugation  (see  222)  ;  also  in 
most  adverbs,  but  short  in  bene,  male,  saepe,  inferne,  superne, 
and  words  like  facile,  temere  (really  neut  adj.). 

(3.)  Final  i  is  common  in  miht,  tibi,  sibl,  ibl,  ubi. 

(4.)  Final  o  is  short  in  immo,  cito,  ilico,  duo,  and  generally  in 
ego,  homo.  It  is  common  in  modo,  but  short  in  its  compounds. 

A  few  other  exceptions  will  be  found  in  their  appropriate  places  later. 
(Cf.  62,  c,  94,  115,  124,  158.) 

n.  Consonants. 

47.  Nouns  and  adjectives  of  one  syllable  ending  in  a 
consonant  are  long ;  as,  sol,  par. 

a.  But  cor,  f el,  mel,  os  (ossis),  vir,  and  probably  vas  (vadis) 
are  short ;  also  those  in  -al  and  -il,  except  sal. 

48.  Other  words  of  one  syllable  and  all  final  syllables 
are  short  if  they  end  in  any  consonant  except  c  or  s. 

*  The  enclitic  particles  given  in  45,  a,  may  be  regarded  as  falling  under 
this  rule,  since  they  are  never  used  alone. 


14  PRONUNCIATION. 

a.  The  following,  however,  are  long :  en,  non.  quin,  sm,  cur, 
lien,  Hiber,  and  Greek  nouns  like  aer,  aetJier,  etc. 

For  other  exceptions  see  93,  d,  94,  97,  7,  98,  a,  124,  and  125. 

49.  Monosyllables  and  final  syllables  in  -c  are  long. 

a.  But  nee,  foe,  donee  are  short  always,  the  pronouns  hie 
and  (if  nominative  or  accusative)  hoc  sometimes. 

50.  Monosyllables  and  final  syllables  in  -as,  -es,  -os  are 
long,  those  in  -is,  -us,  -ys  are  short. 

a.  Exceptions  :  — 

(1.)  as  is  short  in  anas,  duck. 

(2.)  es  is  short  in  the  singular  of  nouns  in  -es  (genitive  -itis, 
-etis,  or  -idis)  (see  1O2),  and  in  the  plural  of  Greek  nouns  of 
the  third  declension  (see  124). 

(3.)  OS  is  short  in  compos,  impos,  and  the  compounds  of  os 
(pssis)  ;  also  in  the  singular  of  the  second  declension  (see  95). 

(4.)  is  and  us  are  long  in  the  plural  of  nouns,  adjectives, 
and  pronouns  (see  91,  95,  1O8,  143,  155,  4,  178,  ISO). 

(5.)  is  is  also  long  in  the  present  of  the  fourth  conjugation 
(see  222),  and  in  the  verb  forms  fis,  is,  sis,  vis,  veils,  and 
their  compounds. 

(6.)  US  is  also  long  in  the  genitive  singular  of  the  fourth  de- 
clension (see  126),  and  in  the  nominative  singular  of  nouns 
whose  genitive  ends  in  -fit is,  -ildis,  or  -uris. 

For  other  exceptions  see  94,  98,  101,  124,  125,  215,  and  429. 

51.  Perfects  and  supines  of  two  syllables  (see  233  if.) 
have  the  penultimate  vowel  long  if  only  a  single  consonant 
follows  it;  as,  vem,fugl,,  votum. 

a.  Except  bibi,  dedl,  fidi,  scidi,  steti,  stiti,  tuli  ;  and  citum, 
datum,  itum,  litum,  quitum,  ratum,  rutum,  satum,  situm,  sta- 
tum. 

52.  The  antepenultimate  vowel  is  short  in  verbs  in  -io 
of  the  third  conjugation  (see  230, /)  ;  as,  capio,  facio, 
fodio,  cupio. 

53.  Compound  words  usually  retain  the  quantity  of 
their  parts  even  when  vowels  are  changed  in  composition. 


INFLECTION.  —  STEMS   AND   ROOTS.  15 

INFLECTION  (Flexw). 

INTRODUCTORY. 

Stems  and  Hoots. 

54.  Words  consist  of   two  parts,  the    STEM  and  the 

ENDING. 

55.  (1.)  The  STEM  belongs  to  all  the  forms  of  the  word 
and  expresses  the  meaning  in  a  general  way  only. 

(2.)  The  ENDING  indicates  the  grammatical  relations  of 
the  word  (gender,  case,  person,  etc.),  and  thus  shows  how 
the  meaning  is  applied  in  particular  instances. 

Thus,  the  word  vox  (voice)  consists  of  a  stem  voc-  and 
an  ending  -s  ;  the  ending  is  changed  to  express  different 
applications  of  the  idea  "  voice ; "  as,  vocwm,  of  voices, 
voce,  with  a  voice. 

56.  Stems  themselves  consist  of   two  parts,  a  simple 
form  called  the  ROOT  and  an  addition  called  a  SUFFIX. 

57.  The  ROOT  is  the  part  which  belongs  to  all  the 
words  of  any  one  group,  and  expresses  the  meaning  in  a 
still  more  general  way  than  the  stem. 

Thus,  the  verb  ago,  the  adjective  agilis,  and  the  noun 
agitatio  have  the  common  root  ag-. 

NOTE.  Roots  are  often  indicated  thus  :  Vag. 

a.  Some  roots  are  used  as  stems  without  taking  any  suffix, 
and  some  nouns  add  no  ending  to  the  stem  in  the  nominative 
case.* 

PHONETIC  CHANGES. 

NOTE.  In  the  formation  and  growth  of  words  various  changes  of  letters 
take  place  as  the  parts  of  the  word  are  put  together.  These  changes  are 

*  These  are  survivals  from  the  earlier  periods  of  language.  At  first 
there  were  only  roots,  the  suffixes  and  other  endings  being  themselves 
independent  roots.  Then  two  roots  (later  more)  were  united  together 
and  presently  coalesced  into  a  single  form  (stem  period).  Finally  the 
inflectional  endings  became  differentiated  from  other  suffixes,  and  thus 
words,  as  we  know  them,  were  developed.  All  word-formation  is  thus 
in  reality  composition. 


UNIVERSITY 


16  INFLECTION. 

the  result  of  an  effort  to  make  a  combination  of  sounds  (1)  easy  to  pro- 
nounce or  (2)  more  agreeable  to  the  ear  than  the  original  combination. 
In  the  first  case  the  change  is  called  Phonetic  Decay;  in  the  second, 
Euphonic  Change. 

Vowel  Changes. 

58.  The  Latin  vowels  are  produced  chiefly  with  the 
lips  and  palate,  as  follows  :  — 

a  is  produced  by  keeping  both  lips  and  palate  wide  open. 

0  is  produced  by  contracting  the  lips  somewhat. 

u  is  produced  by  contracting  the  lips  as  much  as  possible. 
e  is  produced  by  contracting  the  palate  somewhat. 

1  is  produced  by  contracting  the  palate  as  much  as  possible. 
y  is  produced  by  contracting  both  lips  and  palate  as  much  as 

possible. 

59.  Vowels,  especially  when  short,  tend  to  flatten  from 
a  through  o  to  u  or  to  weaken  from  a  through  e  to  i. 
Sometimes  also  they  change  from  o  or  u  across  to  e  or  i, 
as  in  the  following  figure :  — 


Thus :  — 

salto     but   exsulto.  capio     but  incipio. 

servos  and  servus.  nomen  but   nominis. 

factus  but  infectus.  voster    and  vester. 

a.  Certain  consonants  have  a  special  effect  upon  the  vowel 
before  them.     Thus,  a  vowel  before  1  tends  to  become  u,  before 
r  to  become  e.     Cf.  epistula  for  epistola,  verto  for  vorto,  peiero 
for  periiiro. 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  u  was  avoided  after  v  until  about  the 
end    of   the    classical    period.      Therefore  we  find  forms  like 
servos,  volgus,  volt,  in  the  time  of  Cicero  and  Cassar,  though  a 
similar  o  after  other  consonants  had  changed  to  U,  as  in  ficus, 
multum,  vehunt. 


INTRODUCTOKY.  —  VOWEL   CHANGES.  17 

c.  So  after  u  this  o  was  retained  longer  than  elsewhere,  or 
else    cu  was  written   for   quo.     Thus,  while   in  Plautus  and 
Terence  we  have  equos  and  quo'm  beside  multum,  we  find  later 
ecus  beside  equus,  and  cum  always,  never  quum.     On  the  other 
hand,  suus,  tuus,  etc.,  are  the  classical  forms. 

d.  u  in  words  like  lubet,  aestumo,  and  in  superlatives  (espe- 
cially after  t  and  s)  was  retained  till  Cicero's  time,  instead  of 
becoming  i  as  in  other  similar  cases.   Thus :  maxumus,  optumus, 
beside  pulcherrimus. 

60.  The  diphthongs  are  sometimes  weakened  to  single 
long  vowels,  especially  in  composition.     Then  ae  becomes 
I,  oe  becomes  u,  au  becomes  5  or  u.     Thus :  — 

quaero   but  conqulro.  plaudo  but  explodo. 

moenia  but  munio.  claudo   but  include. 

61.  Two  vowels  coming  together  are  often  contracted 
into  one  long  vowel.     The  first  vowel  then  usually  pre- 
vails, but  o  prevails  over  the  weaker  vowels  u,  e,  i,  whether 
before  or  after  them.     Thus  we  have  — 

malo         for    ma(v)olo.  debeo  from  de-habeo. 

amasti     for    ama(v)isti.  nolo       for    ne(v)olo. 

amarunt  for    ama(v)erunt.         iunior   for    iu(v)enior. 
norunt     for    no(v)erunt.  fructus  for    fructuis. 

cogo      from  co(m)-ago.  bigae     for    bi-(i)ugae. 

sirim  for  sl(v)erim. 

62.  Vowels  originally  long   had  in  many  cases  been 
shortened  in  classical   times,  especially  vowels    in   final 
syllables  (cf.  46-50). 

a.  Thus,  final  a  in  the  nominative  of  the  first  declension  was 
originally  long. 

b.  Also  many  final   syllables   in  -1,  -r,  -t,  -m.     Cf.  calcar, 
honor,  amat,  amem,  beside  calcaris,  honoris,  amatis,  aniemus, 
etc. 

c.  Nouns  and  verbs  in  -o  remained  long  generally  through  the 
classical  period,  but  gradually  shortened  in  the  time  of  the  em- 
pire.    So  sermo,  later  sermo  ;  amo,  later  amo,  etc. 


18  INFLECTION. 

63.  The  weaker  vowels  (e  and  i)  were  often  dropped ; 
the  stronger  vowels  (a,  o,  u)  occasionally. 

i.  In  the  middle  of  a  word  (syncope)  :  — 

dextra  from  dextera.  nauta  from  navita. 

vinclum  from  vinculum. 

ii.  At  the  end  of  a  word  (apocope)  :  — 

ut  from  utl.  neu  from  neve. 

64.  Between  consonants  hard  to  pronounce  together  a 
parasitic  vowel  (e  or  u)  was  sometimes  developed,  espe- 
cially in  foreign  names.     Thus :  — 

ager  from  stem  agro-.  Alcumena  for  Alcmena. 

Consonant  Changes. 
The  commonest  consonant  changes  are  as  follows  :  — 

65.  A  consonant  before  1,  r,  or  s  is  often  assimilated. 
Thus :  - 

puella  for  puer(u)la.  parricida  for  patriclda. 

press!  for  premsl. 

66.  Sometimes     the     assimilation     is     only    partial. 
Thus : — 

i.  b  before  s  or  t  becomes  p  ;  as  :  — 

scrips!  for  scribsi.  scriptum  for  sciibtum. 

ii.  g  before  t  becomes  c ;  as  :  — 

actus  for  agtus. 

For  exceptions  see  101,  a,  and  690,  1. 
iii.  c  before  a  liquid  becomes  g  ;  as  :  — 

segmentum  for  secmentam. 
p  and  t  sometimes  thus  become  b  and  d. 
iv.  d,  and  sometimes  t  before  t,  become  s ;  as :  — 

claustrum  for  claudtrum. 

v.  m  before  a  palatal  or  dental  becomes  n  ;  as  :  — 
tune  for  tumc.(e).  enndem  for  eumdem. 


INTRODUCTORY.  —  CONSONANT  CHANGES. 


In  loose  compounds  m  remains  ;  cf.  numquam, 
vi.  A  labial  mute  before  n  becomes  m  ;  as  :  — 

somnum/or  sopnum. 
So  n  before  a  labial  mute  or  in  becomes  m  ;  as  :  — 

imbellis  for  inbellis. 

vii.  c  and  g  unite  witb  a  following  s  to  make  x  ;  as  :  — 
dux  for  dues.  rex/brregs. 

67.  s  between  two  vowels  or  before  m  or  n  becomes  r  ; 
as  :  — 

eram  for  esam.  cf  .  generis  from  genus. 

veternus  for  vetusnus  (cf.  59,  a). 

68.  v  before  a  consonant  becomes  u,  and  tben  if  pre- 
ceded by  a  forms  the  diphthong  au.     Thus  :  — 

solutus  for  solvtus.  cautus  for  cavtus. 

Cf.  63,  i. 

69.  Consonants  are  sometimes  dropped  (elision). 
i.  Earely  at  the  beginning  of  a  word,  as  :  — 

nosco  for  gnosco.  latum  for  tlatum. 

natus  for  gnatus.  lis        for  sills. 

ii.  In  the  middle  of  a  word,  the  preceding  vowel  being 
then  generally  lengthened.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)  c  and  g  between  a  liquid  and  a  following  s  or  t; 
as:  — 

spars!  for  spargsi,  cf.  spargo. 
or  before  m  or  n  ;  as  :  — 

iumentum  for  iugmentum,  cf.  iugo. 
luna  for  lucna,  cf.  luceo. 

(2.)  d  and  t  before  s  and  sometimes  before  other  let- 
ters, as  :  — 

pes     for  peds,  cf.  gen.  pedis.      ramus  for  radmus,  cf.  radix. 
clausi/or  claudsi,  cf.  claudo.        suavis/or  suadvis,  cf.  suadeo. 
For  exceptions  see  66,  iv. 
(3.)  n  before  s,  unless  t  has  already  fallen  out,  as  :  — 


20  INFLECTION. 

sanguis  for  sanguins.  vicesimus  for  vicensimus. 

formosus  for  formonsus. 
~but  mons    for  monts,    cf.  gen.  mentis. 

amans  for  amants,  cf.  gen.  amantis,  etc. 

a.  In  Greek  words,  nt  fall  out  as  in  the  original ;  as,  elephas, 
elepJiantis. 

(4.)  i  consondns  before  a  vowel  i  (cf .  3,./)  ;  as :  — 

plebei  for  plebeil.  libicio  for  abiicio,  etc. 

(5.)  r  occasionally  and  s  often ;  as :  — 

peiero  for  periuro.  iudex  for  iusdex. 

tredecim  for  tresdecim. 

(6.)  v  often,  and  then  if  two  vowels  came  together  con- 
traction takes  place ;  as :  — 

iutus  for  iuvtus.       motus  for  movtus.       aetas  for  aevitas. 
iii.  At  the  end  of  a  word,  whenever  two  consonants 
come  together,  the  second,  unless  it  be  s,  is  dropped  and 
the  preceding  vowel  not  lengthened.     Thus  :  — 

mel,  cf.  gen.  mellis.  cor,  cf.  gen.  cordis. 

In  os  (ossis),  s  is  dropped,  as  ss  cannot  end  a  word. 

70.  A  parasitic  p  is  developed  between  m  and  a  fol- 
lowing s  or  t ;  as : — 

hiemps  for  hierns.      sumps!  for  sums!,      sumptum  for  sumtum. 

71.  Kindred   consonants   are   sometimes  interchanged. 
Thus  :  — 

c  and  g,  as  trecerii,  trlginta. 

d  and  t,  as  set,  haut,  beside  sed,  haud. 

t  and  s  in  many  suffixes,  as  to,  so,  tura,  sura  (cf. 
255,  1,  and  274). 

r  and  1  in  the  suffixes  ra,  la  ;  ris.  Us,  etc.  (cf.  258,  and 
260). 

72.  The  liquids  1  and  r  sometimes  change  places  with 
the  root  vowel  accompanying  them  (metathesis).    Thus  :  — 

cerno  and  cretum.  sterno  and  stratum. 

Other  consonants  very  rarely  do  the  same. 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH.  21 

PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

73.  There  are  eight  classes  of  words  in  Latin,  called 
PARTS  OF  SPEECH.      They  are  Nouns,  Adjectives,  Pro- 
nouns, Verbs,  Adverbs,  Prepositions,  Conjunctions,  and 
Interjections.     The  last  four  are  sometimes  called  PARTI- 
CLES. 

74.  (1.)  A  NOUN  —  also  called  SUBSTANTIVE  —  (no- 
men)    is  the  name  of   something;    as,   Caesar;    Roma, 
Rome ;  avis,  bird  ;  virtus,  virtue. 

(2.)  An  ADJECTIVE  (adiecfivum*)  is  a  word  used  with  a 
noun  to  express  a  quality  of  it  or  to  describe  it  in  some 
way ;  as,  bonus,  good  ;  magnus,  great ;  tantus,  so  great. 

(3.)  A  PRONOUN  (pronomen)  is  a  word  used  to  supply 
the  place  of  a  noun ;  as,  tu,  thou ;  ille,  he  or  that ;  qm, 
who. 

(4.)  A  VERB  (verbum)  is  a  word  by  which  something 
is  affirmed  or  stated ;  as,  regit,  he  rules ;  cram,  I  was. 

(5.)  An  ADVERB  (adverbium)  is  a  word  used  to  limit 
or  describe  the  meaning  of  a  verb,  adjective,  or  another 
adverb ;  as,  bene,  well ;  saepe,  often. 

NOTE.  Observe  that  a  descriptive  adverb  has  the  same  relation  to  its 
verb  which  a  descriptive  adjective  has  to  its  noun.  Thus,  in  the  expres- 
sion "he  acted  nobly,"  the  adverb  "nobly"  limits  "acted"  in  just  the 
same  way  in  which  "noble"  limits  "act"  in  the  expression  "a  noble 
act." 

(6.)  A  PREPOSITION  (praepositio*)  is  a  word  which  ex- 
presses the  relation  between  a  noun  or  pronoun  and  some 
other  word  ;  as,  cum,  with  ;  sub,  under. 

(7.)  A  CONJUNCTION  (coniunctio)  is  a  word  used  to 
connect  other  words  or  combinations  of  words ;  as,  et,  and  ; 
nam,  for. 

(8.)  An  INTERJECTION  (interiectio)  is  a  word  used  to 
make  an  exclamation  expressing  some  emotion ;  as,  ecce, 
lo  !  euge,  well  done  ! 


22  INFLECTION. 

NOTE.  The  inflection  of  nouns,  adjectives,  and  pronouns  is  called  DE- 
CLENSION (declindtio),  that  of  verbs,  CONJUGATION  (coniugdtio).  Some 
adjectives  and  the  adverbs  derived  from  them  also  undergo  COMPARISON 
(comparatio)  to  show  the  degree  of  their  application.  The  other  parts  of 
speech  are  not  inflected. 

NOUNS. 

75.  Nouns  (nomina)  are  divided  into  — 

i.  ABSTRACT  (nomina  dbstrdcta),  or  names  of  qualities, 
actions,  or  notions ;  as,  bonitds,  goodness ;  otium,  rest ; 
festindtio,  haste. 

ii.  CONCRETE  (nomina  concreta),  or  names  of  individual 
objects. 

76.  Concrete  nouns  are  divided  into  — 

i.  PROPER  nouns  (iiomina  propria),  or  names  of  per- 
sons, places,  etc. ;  as,  Caesar;  Roma,  Rome. 

ii.  COMMON  or  APPELLATIVE  nouns  (nomina  appelld- 
tiva),  or  names  of  classes  of  objects ;  as,  homo,  man ; 
avis,  bird  ;  menddcium,  lie. 

iii.  COLLECTIVE  nouns  (nomina  collectiva),  or  names 
of  groups  of  objects;  as,  cxercitus,  army;  populus,  the 
people. 

iv.  MATERIAL  nouns  (nomina  materialia),  or  names  of 
materials ;  as,  lignum,  wood ;  cibus,  food. 

77.  Nouns  have  GENDER,  NUMBER,  and  CASE. 

GENDER  (Genus). 

78.  The  GENDER  of  a  noun  is  its  distinction  in  regard 
to  sex.     There  are  three  genders  in   Latin,  MASCULINE 
(inasculinum),   FEMININE    (femininum),   and    NEUTER 
(neutrum). 

79.  Gender  is  of  two  kinds :  NATURAL,  corresponding 
to  the  real  sex  of  the  object,  and  GRAMMATICAL,  attached 
to   particular  word-endings  without  any  regard    to    sex. 
The  natural  gender  has  the   precedence  of  grammatical 
gender  in  nouns  denoting  male  or  female  beings. 


NOUNS.  —  GENDER. NUMBER.  23 

80.  Masculine  are  the  following  classes  of  nouns  :  — 
i.  Names  of  male  beings  and  of  nations. 

ii.  Names  of  rivers,  winds,  and  months. 

NOTE.  The  words  for  river  (fluvius  and  amnis),  for  wind  (ventus),  and 
for  month  (mensis)  are  masculine,  and  the  individual  names  were  probably 
at  first  adjectives  agreeing  with  these. 

81.  Feminine  are  the  following  classes  of  nouns :  — 
i.  Names  of  female  beings. 

ii.  Names  of  countries,  towns,  islands,  trees,  plants,  and 
usually  gems. 

82.  Neuter  are  the  following  classes  of  nouns  :  — 
i.  Names  of  the  letters  and  indeclinable  nouns. 

ii.  Words  used  merely  as  such  without  grammatical 
relations ;  as,  pater  est  dlsyllabum,  [the  word]  father  is  a 
word  of  two  syllables. 

iii.  Other  parts  of  speech,  phrases,  and  clauses  used  as 
nouns. 

83.  Some  words  are  either  masculine  or  feminine,  and 
such  are  said  to  be  of  common  gender  (genus  commune)  ; 
as,  hostis,  enemy ;  6os,  ox  or  cow. 

NOTE.  Whan  such  nouns  denote  things  their  gender  is  sometimes 
called  doubtful  (anceps),  but  this  term  is  becoming  obsolete. 

84.  Some  names   of   animals  include  both  sexes,  but 
have  only  one  gender ;  as,  passer,  m.,  sparrow ;  volpes,  f ., 
fox.     They  are  called  EPICENE  nouns  (epicoena  or  pro- 
nilscua).     They  generally  have  the  gender  of  their  termi- 
nations. 

a.  When  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the  sex  in  these  nouns, 
the  word  mas  or  femina  is  put  in  apposition  with  them ;  as, 
volpes  mas,  a  male  fox. 

NUMBER  (Numerus). 

85.  The  NUMBER  of  a  noun  shows  whether  one  thing 
is  meant  by  it  or  more  than  one. 


•J4  INFLECTION. 

86.  There  are  two   numbers  in  Latin,  the  SINGULAR 
(singularis),  denoting  one  object,  and  the  PLURAL  (plu- 

i,  denoting  more  than  one. 

a.  There  are  two  instances  of  a  lost  DUAL  number  (ductiis), 
denoting  two  objects ;  namely,  ambo,  both,  and  duo,  two. 

CASE  (Casus). 

87.  The  CASE  of  a  noun  shows  its  relation  to  other 
words. 

88.  There  are  six  cases  in  Latiii :  — 

(1.)  The  NOMINATIVE  (ndmtfMftitTttt),  which  denotes 
the  noun  as  a  word,  and  especially  indicates  the  relation 
of  the  subject  to  a  finite  verb. 

(2.)  The  GENITIVE  (genefivus),  which  expresses  rela- 
tions of  possession,  origin,  and  such  others  as  are  mostly 
expressed  by  the  preposition  of  in  English. 

(3.)  The  DATIVE  (da&vus),  which  expresses  that  to 
or  for  which  am'thing  is  or  is  done. 

(4.)  The  ACCUSATIVE  (accusafivus),  which  denotes  the 
relation  of  an  object  to  a  transitive  verb  or  preposition. 

(5.)  The  VOCATIVE  (rocaZm/s),  which  is  used  to  ad- 
dress a  person  or  thing. 

(6.)  The  ABLATIVE  (ablatlvus),  which  expresses  va- 
rious adverbial  relations,  such  as  are  expressed  in  English 
mostly  by  the  prepositions  6y,/rowi,  with. 

a.  There  are  remnants  of  a  seventh  case  called  the  LOCATIVE 
(locafiviis).  which  was  once  used  to  denote  the  place  where  a 
tiling  was  or  was  done,  but  afterwards  coalesced  in  most  of  its 
forms  with  the  ablative.      (See  93,  97,  3,  and  112.) 

b.  Indications  of  a  special  case-form  to  denote  the  means  or 
instrument  of  an  action  (INSTRUMENTAL  case)  also  occur,  but 
this  case  became  early  absorbed  in  the  ablative. 

c.  The  nominative  and  vocative  are  sometimes  called  DIRECT 
cases  (casiis  rectl),  i.  e.,  uninflected  cases;  the  others  OBLIQUE 
cases  (cdsiis  obliyul),  i.  e.,  Inflected  cases. 


NOUNS.  —  THE   DECLENSIONS.  25 

d.  The  vocative  is  properly  not  a  case  at  all,  and,  except  in 
some  Greek  nouns  and  in  the  singular  of  masculine  (and  femi- 
nine) nouns  of  the  second  declension  ending  in  -OS  or  -us  (see 
95),  has  always  the  same  form  as  the  nominative. 

DECLENSION  (Decllmitid). 

89.  There  are  five  declensions  in  Latin,  distinguished 
by  the  last  letter  of  the  stems  which  they  include,  or  (in 
dictionaries)    by  the   endings    of   the   genitive   singular. 
Thus  :  — 

Declension  Stem-vowel  Ending  of  Genitive  Singular 

I.  a  -ae 

II.  o  -i 

III.  i  or  a  consonant  -is 

IV.  u  -us 
V.  e  -ei 

a.  The  final  letter  of  the  stem  is  called  the  characteristic,  and 
appears  most  clearly  in  the  genitive  plural,  as  follows  :  — 

Declension  Ending  of  Gen.  Plural 

I.  -arum 

II.  -orum 

III.  -ium  or  -urn 

IV.  -uum 
V.  -erum 

90.  The  regular  endings  of  the  different  cases,  com- 
bined according  to  the  laws  of  euphonic  change,  with  the 
characteristics  of  the  five  declensions,  are  given  on  p.  26. 

a.  It  will  be  noticed  that  when  the  same  ending  occurs  in 
both  singular  and  plural,  it  usually  has  a  short  vowel  in  the  sin- 
gular and  a  long  one  in  the  plural. 

b.  It  will  be  seen  further  that  — 

(1.)  The  nominative  singular  of  masculines  and  feminines 
generally  ends  in  -s. 

(2.)  The  accusative  singular  of  masculines  and  feminines 
always  ends  in  -m. 


OF    - 

UNIVERSITY 


26 


INFLECTION. 


' 


«      ,. 


. 
* 


•? 


J8  g 


, 


o 

' 


Singular. 


Plural. 


NOUNS.  —  THE   DECLENSIONS.  27 

(3.)  The  vocative  is  always  like  the  nominative  except  in  the 
singular  of  second  declension  nouns  in  -os  and  -us. 

(4.)  The  dative  and  ablative  plural  are  always  alike. 

(5.)  The  genitive  plural  always  ends  in  -um,  except  occasion- 
ally in  second  declension  nouns  in  -os  and  -om. 

(6.)  The  accusative  plural  of  masculines  and  feminines  al- 
ways ends  in  -S. 

(7.)  In  neuters  the  accusative  as  well  as  the  vocative  is  like 
the  nominative,  and  in  the  plural  these  cases  always  end  in  -a. 

(8.)  The  final  vowels  i,  o,  u  are  always  long  (cf.  46)  ;  a  is 
short  except  in  the  ablative  singular  of  the  first  declension ;  e  is 
short  except  in  the  fifth  declension. 

NOTE.  These  (apparent)  endings  grew  from  the  combination  of  a  nearly 
or  quite  uniform  set  of  case-endings  with  the  diiferent  kinds  of  stems.  The 
original  endings  were  of  course  common  to  the  different  members  of  the 
Indo-European  parent  language.  The  earliest  forms  which  they  show  in 
Latin  are  as  follows: — 

Singular.  Plural. 

M.  &  F.  N.  M.  &  F.  N. 

Nona.  andVoc.     -B  -a  -a 

Gen.  -os  -sum 

Dat.  -i  -bus 

Ace.  -m  -B  -a 

Abl.  -d  -bus 

[Loc.]  -i  -is 

Most  of  the  development  from  these  endings  to  the  common  endings  met 
in  literature  is  easy  to  trace  by  the  rules  of  euphonic  change  given  above 
(58-72).  A  few  points,  however,  need  further  mention.  The  -B  had 
dropped  from  the  nominative  of  the  first  declension,  and  the  -d  of  the  ab- 
lative had  almost  disappeared,  when  literature  began.  This  -d  belonged 
only  to  a-,  O-,  and  i-  stems.  The  ablative  of  consonant  and  u-  stems  came 
from  the  old  instrumental  case  in  e  ;  that  of  e-  stems  was  formed  later  to 
correspond  to  a-  stems.  In  the  first  declension  the  ending  of  the  geni- 
tive singular  gave  way  to  a  new  one,  -ai,  later  -ae,  which  is  very  probably 
the  locative  ending  transferred  to  the  genitive  case.  A  like  transposition 
of  the  locative  ending  took  place  in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  of  the 
first  and  second  declensions,  -em  in  the  accusative  singular  of  consonant 
stems  is  probably  the  Latin  representative  of  an  earlier  vowel-m.  Cf. 
Handbuch  der  klassischen  Altertumswissenschaft,  edited  by  Iwan  Miiller, 
vol.  ii.,  Part  L,  B. :  "  Lateinische  Formenlehre,"  by  J.  Stolz,  pp.  153, 
213  et  alias. 


28  INFLECTION. 

FIRST  DECLENSION. 

91.  The  first  declension  consists  of  the  nouns  whose 
stems  end  in  -a.     The  nominative  is  the  same  as  the  stem 
with  the  vowel  shortened.     They  are  thus  declined  :  — 

musa,  a  muse. 

Stem  musa- 

Singular.  Plural. 

Norn,  musa,  a  muse.  musae,  muses. 

Gen.   musae,  of  a  muse.  musarum,  of  muses. 

Dat.    musae,  to  a  muse.  musis,  to  muses. 

Ace.   musam,  a  muse.  musas,  muses. 

Voc.   musa,  thou  muse.  musae,  ye  muses. 

Abl.    musa,  from,  by,  with  a      musis,    from,    by,    with 
muse.  muses. 

GENDER. 

92.  Nouns  of  the  first  declension  are  regularly  femi- 
nine. 

a.  Nouns  which  denote  male  beings  are  masculine  ;  as,  scriba, 
clerk ;  poeta,  poet.  So  Hadria,  the  Adriatic  Sea  (properly, 
the  god  of  that  sea).  So  also  various  names  of  rivers  (cf. 
80,  ii.). 

CASE-FORMS. 

93.  The  locative  of  the  first  declension  ends  in  -ae  in 
the  singular  and  in  -is  (like  the  ablative)  in  the  plural ; 
as,  Romae,  at  Rome ;  Athenis,  at  Athens. 

a.  An  old  form  of  the  genitive  singular   in  -al  occurs  in  the 
poets ;  as,  aulal.     The  same  ending  is  found  in  the  dative,  but 
only  as  a  diphthong. 

b.  Like  the  stem  vowel  the  nominative  ending  in  the  first  de- 
clension was  originally  long,  and  the  nominative  is  sometimes 
found  with  the  final  a  long  in  early  poetry ;  as,  puella. 

c.  The  old  genitive  singular  in  -as  is  used  in  the  word  fa- 
mil!",   when    combined   with  pater,  mater,  fUius,   or  filia. 
Thus  :  pater  familias,  a  householder. 


FIRST   DECLENSION.  —  GREEK   NOUNS.  29 

d.  The  old  genitive  plural  in  -um  instead  of  -arum  is  re- 
tained in  compounds  of  cola  and  gena,  in  many  names  of  na- 
tions,   and   in   the   words   amphora,    a   liquid     measure,    and 
drachma,  a  Greek  coin. 

e.  A  dative  and  ablative  plural  in  -abus  is  sometimes  found. 
This  form  is  usual  only  in  dea,  goddess,  and  fllia,  daughter,  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  same  cases  of  deus,  god,  and  filius, 
son. 

/.  In  words  like  Baiae,  the  i  of  the  stem  is  dropped  before 
the  ending  of  the  dative  and  ablative  plural ;  as,  Bals  for 
Bails.  (Cf.  3,  /,  and  69,  ii.,  4.) 

For  other  rare  old  case  forms,  cf.  Biicheler,  Grundriss  der  lat.  Decli- 
nation. 

GREEK  NOUNS. 

NOTE.  Nouns  taken  from  the  Greek  were  latinized  to  a  greater  or  a  less 
degree  according  to  the  time  when  they  came  into  the  language.  The 
nouns  borrowed  early  show  more  Latin  forms,  while  those  which  came  in 
at  the  height  of  the  classical  period  retain  more  of  their  Greek  aspect. 
Often  a  Latin  form  is  the  more  common  in  prose,  while  the  Greek  form  is 
preferred  by  the  poets. 

94.  Greek  nouns  in  the  first  declension  end  in  -a  or  -e 
feminine,  in  -as  or  -es  masculine.     The  Greek  forms  oc- 
cur only  in  the   singular ;  and  in   nouns  in   -a  they  are 
chiefly  confined  to  the  accusative  case. 

The  declension  of  the  singular  is  as  shown  below. 
The  plural  is  like  that  of  pure  Latin  nouns. 

Nom.  Ossa  epitome  tiaras  cometes  Anchises 

Gen.    Ossae  epitomes  (-ae)  tiarae  cometae  Anchisae 

Dat.    Ossae  epitomae  (-e)  tiarae  cometae  Anchisae 

Ace.    Ossam  (-an  epitomen  tiaram  cometen  Anchlsen 

or  -an)  *  (-am)  (-an)  (-am)  (-am) 

Voc.    Ossa  epitome  tiara  (-a)  cometa  Anchisa(-e) 

Abl.    Ossa  epitome  (-a)  tiara  cometa  (-e)  Anchlse  (-a) 

SECOND   DECLENSION. 

95.  The  second  declension  consists  of  the  nouns  whose 
stems  end  in   -o.     The  nominative  ending  is  -us   (-os) 

*  The  forms  in  parentheses  are  the  less  common  ones. 


30  INFLECTION. 

masculine   and   a   few   feminine,  -er   or  -ir  *  masculine, 
um-  (-om)  neuter.     The  declension  is  as  follows  :  — 
dominus,  master.  regnum,  kingdom. 

servos  (later  servus),  slave. 

domino- 


Stem 


servo- 


regno- 


Nom. 
Gen. 
D.  &  A. 
Ace. 
Voc. 

N.&V. 

Gen. 
D.  &  A. 
Ace. 

dominus 
domini 
domino 
dominum 
domine 

domini 
dominorum 
dominis 
dominos 

gener,  son-in-law. 
Stem  genero- 


N.  &  V.  gener 

Gen.  generi 

D.  &  A.  genero 

Ace.  generum 


N.  &  V.  generi 

Gen.  gener5rum 

D.  &  A.  generis 

Ace.  generos 


Singular. 

servos  (servus)  regnum 

servi  regnl 

servo  regno 

servom  (servum)  regnum 

serve  regnum 


Plural 

servi 
servorum 
servis 
servos 

ager,  field. 
agro- 

Singular. 
ager 
agri 
agro 
agrum 

Plural. 

agri 

agrorum 
agris 
agr5s 


regna 
regnorum 
regnis 
regna 

vir,  man. 
viro- 


vr 
viri 
viro 
virum 


viri 

virorum 
viris 
viros 


*  The  only  nouns  in  -ir  are  vir  (man),  and  (chiefly  in  late  Latin)  levir, 
husband's  brother. 


. 

SECOND   DECLENSION. —  CASE-FORMS.  31 

EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER. 

96.  The  following  nouns  are  — 
(1.)  Feminine  :  — 

alvos,  belly.  diphthongus,  diphthong. 

atomus,  atom.  humus,  ground. 

carbasus,  flax,  sail.  vannus,  grain-fan. 

coins,  distaff. 

Also  most  names  of  countries,  towns,  islands,  trees,  plants, 
and  gems  (cf.  81,  ii.),  with  a  few  other  comparatively  rare 
nouns. 

(2.)  Neuter:  — 

pelagus,  sea ;  virus,  poison  ;  and  generally  volgus,  crowd. 

CASE-FORMS. 

97.  (1.)  Stems  in  ro-  preceded  by  a  consonant  gener- 
ally form  the  nominative  by  dropping  the  stem  vowel  o 
and  developing  a  parasitic  e  before  the  r  (see  64),  as  in 
ager.   (Cf.  paradigm.) 

(2.)  In  the  following  nouns  the  e  belongs  to  the  stem, 
and  is  of  course  retained  through  all  the  cases,  as  in  gener. 
(Cf.  paradigm.) 

adulter,  adulterer.  puer,  boy. 

gener,  son-in-law.  socer,  father-in-law. 

Liber,  Bacchus.  vesper,  evening. 

Also  the  compounds  from  fero  and  gero  which  end  in  -fer  or 
-ger;  as,  Lucifer,  the  morning  star  (i.  e.,  light-bringer) ;  armiger, 
armor-bearer. 

(3.)  The  locative  of  the  second  declension  ends  in  -I  in 
the  singular,  and  in  -is  (like  the  ablative)  in  the  plural ; 
as,  Corinthi,  at  Corinth  ;  Vels,  at  Veii. 

(4.)  Nouns  in  -ius  and  -ium  formed  the  genitive  singu- 
lar in  -i  (not  -ii)  until  about  45  B.  c.  Thus :  gladius, 
gladl ;  negotium,  negoti.  In  proper  names  the  single  -1 
in  the  genitive  was  retained  much  later. 


32  INFLECTION. 

(5.)  The  vocative  singular  of  proper  names  in  -his  and 
-ium,  and  of  the  nouns  filius,  son,  and  genius,  guardian 
spirit,  drops  the  e.  Thus  :  Mercur'i,  fill,  gem.  Other 
nouns  in  -ius  are  not  found  in  the  vocative  singular. 

a.  The  accent  of  these  genitives  and  vocatives  is  on  the  penult 
even  though  short ;  as,  Mercurl. 

(6.)  Deus,  god,  is  thus  declined  :  — 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  and  V.  deus  del,  dii,  di 

Gen.  del  deorum,  deum 

Dat.  and  Abl.        deo  dels,  diis,  dis 

Ace.  deum  deos 

a.  The  forms  del,  dels  are  more  common  than  dil,  diis,  di, 
dis,  until  after  Cicero's  time. 

(7.)  Nouns  denoting  money,  weight,  or  measure  gener- 
ally retain  the  old  form  -urn  (-6m)  instead  of  -orum  in  the 
genitive  plural ;  as,  nummum,  of  coin ;  modium,  of  bushels. 

a.  Many  other  such  genitives  occur  in  verse ;  and  the  follow- 
ing are  sometimes  found  in  prose :  deum,  duumvirum,  fabrum 
(always  when  used  with  praefectus)  ;  also  liberum  (meaning 
children),  and  socium  when  used  of  the  Italian  allies. 

For  other  rare  old  forms,  cf.  Bucheler's  Grundriss. 

GREEK  NOUNS. 

98.  Greek  nouns  in  the  second  declension  end  in  -os, 

-os,  or  -us  masculine  (or  feminine),  -on  neuter.      They 
are  thus  declined :  — 

Nom.  Delos     Androgeos       Orpheus  barbiton  (lyre) 

Dat.    Dell        Androgeo  (-1)  Orphei  (-os)  barbitl 

Gen.  Delo       Androgeo         Orphei  (-6)  barbita 

Ace.    Delon    Androgeo         Orphea  barbiton 

(-urn)       (-on) 

Voc.   Dele       Androgeos       Orpheu  barbiton 

Abl.    Del5       Androgeo         Orphe5  barbito 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  —  CONSONANT    STEMS.  33^ 

a.  The  plural  is  like  that  of  pure  Latin  nouns,  except  that  the 
nominative  sometimes   ends   in  -oe ;    as,  Adelphoe  y    and  the 
genitive  (especially  in  titles  of  books)  in  -on ;  as,  Georgicon,  of 
the  Georgics. 

b.  Proper  names  in  -er  (Greek  -pos)  are  generally  declined 
as   pure    Latin   nouns.      Thus  :    Alexander,  Antipater ;    gen. 
Alexandrl^  Antipatrl. 

c.  Isolated  forms,  corresponding  directly  to  the  Greek,  are  the 
neuter  plurals  (nom.  and  ace.)  pelage   (of  pelagus,  sea),  cete 
(of  cetus,  whale),  and  Tempe  ;  the  nominative  Panthus  and 
vocative  Panthu  ;  the  genitive  Menandru. 

d.  lesus  has  accusative  lesum,  and  in  all  other  cases  lesu. 

THIRD   DECLENSION. 

99.  The  third  declension,  unlike  the  others,  includes 
two  *  kinds  of  steins,  the  i-  stems  and  the  consonant  stems. 
It  has  also  two  u-  stems,  which  are  treated  like  consonant 

stems. 

CONSONANT  STEMS. 

100.  Consonant  stems  can  be  conveniently  studied  in 
the  following  three  groups :  — 

1.  Those  which  add  s  to  form  the  nominative  singular. 

2.  Those  which  have  no  s  in  the  nominative  singular. 

3.  Those- which  were  originally  s-  stems. 

In  all  of  these  groups  the  nominative  sometimes  has 
the  stem  vowel  varied.     (See  below.) 

Nouns  Adding  S  in  Nominative  Singular. 

101.  The  nominative  singular  is  formed  by  adding  s  in 
the  case  of  masculine  and  feminine  mute  stems,  of  the  two 
u-  stems,  and  of  the  only  stem  in  m-.f 

*  The  third  declension  thus  really  includes  two  declensions,  but  the  case- 
forms  for  i-  stems  and  those  for  consonant  stems  fell  together  to  such  an 
extent  as  the  language  grew  that  it  is  best  to  combine  the  two  kinds  of 
stems  in  one  declension. 

t  This  is  the  stem  hiem-,  which  besides  adding  S  in  the  nominative  de- 
velops a  parasitic  p.  Thus :  hiemps,  f . ,  winter,  gen.  hiemis. 


34 


INFLECTION. 


a.  A  labial  mute  (b  or  p)  remains  unchanged  before  s,  a  pala- 
tal (c  or  g)  unites  with  s  to  form  x,  a  dental  (d  or  t)  disappears 
before  s.  The  two  u-  stems  lengthen  the  stem  vowel. 

1).  Four  dental  stems  also  lengthen  the  stem  vowel :  ped-, 
nom.  pes,  m.,  foot ;  abiet-,  nom.  abies,  f.,  fir-tree ;  ariet-,  nom. 
aries,  m.,  ram ;  pariet-,  nom.  paries,  m.,  wall. 

c.  Mute  stems  with  i  before  the  mute  usually  show  e  instead 
of  i  in  the  nominative ;  as,  mliit-,  nom.  miles,  m.,  soldier ;  remig-, 
nom.  remex,  m.,  oarsman.     So  also  aucup-,  nom.  auceps,  m., 
bird-catcher.     Exceptions  are  colic-,  nom.  calix,  m.,  cup  ;  lapid-, 
nom.  lapis,  m.,  stone  ;  and  Greek  stems  in  id-. 

d.  The  stem  bov-  makes  bos,  c.,*  ox  or  cow ;   niv-  (originally 
niffv-)  makes  nix,  f.,  snow;   coning-  has  a  parasitic  n  in  the 
nominative.     Thus :  coniunx,  c.,  spouse,  gen.  coniugis. 

102.  Such  nouns  are  thus  declined :  — 


forceps,  c.,  rex,  m.,  lapis,  m.,    miles,  m.,  BUS,  c., 
king          stone  soldier        swine 


Stem 


N.andV. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 


pincers 
forcip- 


reg-         lapid-         milit-         su« 
Singular. 


forceps        rSx          lapis  miles  sus 

foroipis        regis        lapidis  militis  suis 

forcipi         regi          lapidi  militi  sui 

forcipem     regem     lapidem  militem  suem 

forcipe        rege        lapide  milite  sue 

Plural. 


N.  Ace.  and  V.  forcipes       reges       lapides       milites 

Gen.  forcipum     regum     lapidum     militum    suum 

Dat.  and  Abl.     forcipibus  regibus  lapidibus  militibus  subus  (suibus) 

Noons  with  No  S  in  Nominative  Singular. 

103.  Stems  in  1-,  n-,  or  r-,  and  the  few  neuters  in  t- 
(also  one  in  d-f),  add  no  s,  but  themselves  serve  as  nomi- 
natives, either  unchanged  or  with  the  following  modifica- 
tions :  — 

*  I.  e.,  common  gender. 

t  Namely,  cord-,  nom.  cor,  heart. 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  —  CONSONANT   STEMS. 


35 


a.  Sal-,  nom.  sal,  m.,  salt ;  lar-,  nom.  Lar,  m.,  hearth-god  ; 
and   the   Greek  stems  aer-,  nom.  aer,  m.,   air ;    and  aether-, 
nom.  aether,  m.,  upper  air,  lengthen  the  stem  vowel.     The  stem 
calcar-  shortens  the  vowel :  calcar,  n.,  spur. 

b.  Stems  ending  in  two  consonants  drop  the  second  (cf .  69  iii.)  ; 
as,  mell-,  nom.  mel,  n.,  honey.     Two  also  lengthen  the  vowel : 
lact-,  nom.  lac,  n.,  milk ;  and/arr-,  nom.  far,  n.,  spelt. 

c.  Stems  in  on-  and  those  in  din-  or  gin-  drop  the  n  and  end 
the  nominative  in  5 ;  as,  leon-,  nom.  led,  m.,  lion ;  virgin-,  nom. 
virgo,  f.,  maiden.    So  also  turbin-,  nom.  turbo,  m.,  whirlwind ; 
and  earn-,  nom.  card,  f.,  flesh.    Cf.  homin-,  nom.  homo,  m.,  man. 

d.  Other  stems  in  in-  show  en  in  the  nominative ;  as,  carmin-, 
nom.  carmen,  n.,  soug;  flamin-,  nom.flamen,  m.,  (a  kind  of) 
priest. 

e.  Stems  in  tr-  develop  a  parasitic  e  in  the  nominative ;   as, 
pair-,  nom.  pater,  m.,  father ;  matr-,  nom.  mater,  f.,  mother.    (Cf. 
also  Vowel  stems,  1O8,  b,  and  97,  1.) 

/.   The  stem  capit-  makes  caput,  n.,  head.      Greek  neuter 
stems  in  at-  drop  the  t /  as,  poemat-,  nom.  poema,  n.,  poem. 

104.  Such  nouns  are  thus  declined :  — 


consul,  m.,  consul 

leo,  m.,  lion      virgo,  f.,  maiden 

Stem 

c5nsul- 

leon- 

virgin- 

Singular. 

N.  &  V.        consul 

leo 

virg5 

Gen. 

consulis 

Ie5nis 

virginis 

Dat. 

cSnsuli 

leSni 

virgin! 

Ace. 

consulem 

leonem 

virginem 

Abl. 

consule 

Ie5ne 

virgine 

Plural. 

N.Acc 

.  &  V.  consules 

leSnes 

virgines 

Gen. 

consulum 

leonum 

virginum 

Dat.  & 

Abl.  consulibus 

leonibus 

virginibus 

86  INFLECTION. 

nomen,  n.,  name     caput,  n.,  head    pater,  m.,  father 


Stem 


nomin- 


N.  &  V.  nomen 

Gen.  nominis 

Dat.  npminl 

Ace.  nomen 

Abl.  nomine 

N.  A.  &V.  nomina 
Gen.          nominum 
D.  &  Ab.  nominibus 


capit- 
Singular. 
caput 
capitis 
capiti 
caput 
capite 

Plural. 
capita 
capitum 
capitibus 


patr- 

pater 

patris 

patri 

patrem 

patre 

patres 

patrum 

patribus 


Stems  Originally  Ending  in  S. 

105.  Of  the  many  nouns  which  originally  had  s-  stems, 
only  vas,  n.,  vase,  gen.  vasis,  retains  the  s  in  declension, 
and  this  noun  passes  in  the  plural  into  the  second  declen- 
sion (see  paradigm,  107).     In  the  other  nouns  s  becomes 
r  in  declension,  i.  e.,  between  two  vowels.     (Cf.  67.) 

106.  These  nouns   show   the  following  forms  in  the 
nominative  singular :  — 

a.  Some  masculine  nouns  in  -6s  retain  the  original  form ;  as, 
fios,  flower,  gen.  floris  ;  more  commonly,  however,  they  have 
-or ;  as,  amor,  love,  gen.  amoris.     A  few  have  both  forms ;  as, 
hands  or  honor,  honor.     So  the  feminine  arbos  or  arbor,  tree, 
gen.  arboris. 

b.  Neuter  stems  in  or-  (orig.  os-)  generally  have  the  nomina- 
tive in  -us ;  as,  corpus,  body,  gen.  corporis.    »They  frequently 
have  the  stem  vowel  weakened  to  e  in  the  oblique  cases;  as, 
opus,  work,  gen.  operis.     A  few  have  -ur  in  the  nominative ; 
as,  robur,  strength,  gen.  roboris. 

c.  After  the  analogy  of  neuters  are  formed  the  masculines 
lepus,  hare,  gen.  leporis  ;  Ligus,  Ligurian,  gen.  Liguris ;  and 
the  feminine  Venus,  gen.  Veneris. 

d.  The  original  s  appears  also  in  the  following  :  — 


THIKD   DECLENSION.  —  STEMS   ORIGINALLY   IN  S.        37 


tellur-    tellus,  f.,  earth. 
tur-        tus,  n.,  frankincense. 


Stem  Nom.  Stem  Nom. 

aer-'  aes,  n.,  copper.  mur-      mus,  c.,  mouse. 

Cerer-  Ceres,  f.,  Ceres.  pur-       pus,  n.,  pus. 

crur-  crus,  n.,  leg.  rur-        rus,  n.,  country. 

glir-  glis,  m.,  dormouse. 

iur-  ius,  n.,  right. 

mar-  mas,  m.,  male  being. 

e.  A  few  masculine  stems  in  er-  have  the  nominative  in  -is, 
either  alone  or  beside  a  form  in  -er.     These  are :  — 

Stem  Nom. 

ciner-  cinis,  ashes. 

pulver-  pulvis,  dust. 

(  vomer.  )    ,       -,   -, 

vomer-  •<_.'>•  ploughshare. 

{vomis,  )  r 

107.  Such  nouns  are  thus  declined :  — 


flos, 

m.,  flower 

honor,  m.,  honor 

pulvis,  m.,  dust 

Stem 

flor- 

honor- 

pulver- 

Singular. 

N.  &  V. 

flos 

honos  ) 
honor  \ 

pulvis 

Gen. 

flSris 

honoris 

pulveris 

Dat. 

flori 

honorl 

pulveri 

Ace. 

florem 

honorem 

pulverem 

Abl. 

flore 

honQre 

pulvere 

Plural. 

N.Acc.&V. 

flores 

honores 

pulveres 

Gen. 

florum 

honorum 

pulverum 

Dat.  &  Abl. 

floribus 

honoribus 

pulveribus 

corpus,  n.,  body 

opus,  n.,  work 

vas,  n.,  vase 

Stem 

corpor- 

oper- 

vas- 

Singular. 

N.Acc.&Y. 

corpus 

opus 

vas 

Gen. 

corporis 

operis 

vasis 

Dat. 

corpori 

operi 

vasi 

Abl. 

corpore 

opere 

vase 

Plural. 

N.Acc.&V. 

corpora 

opera 

vasa 

Gen. 

corporum 

operum 

vasorum 

Dat.  &  Abl. 

corporibus 

operibus 

vasis 

38  INFLECTION. 

I-  STEMS. 

108.  Masculine  and  feminine  i-  stems  add  s  to  form  the 
nominative.  Neuters  add  no  s,  but  show  e  instead  of  i  in 
the  nominative.  Those  in  all-  and  ari-  drop  the  i  and 
shorten  the  a.*  Thus  : 


Norn. 

siti-  sitis,  f.,  thirst 

marl-  mare,  n.,  sea. 

animall-  animal,  n.,  living  thing. 

exemplari-  exemplar,  n.,  pattern. 

a.  But  a  number  of  nouns,  chiefly  feminine,  form  the  nomina- 
tive in  -es.     The  common  ones  are  as  follows :  — 

aedes,  f.,  temple  (also  aedis).  proles,  f.,  offspring. 

caedes,  f.,  bloodshed.  pubes,  f.,  youth. 

clades,  f.,  disaster.  sedes,  f.,  seat. 
compages,  f.,  joint  (in  building).        sordes,  f.,  dirt. 

fames,  f.,  hunger.  stray  es,  f.,  carnage. 

feles,  f.,  cat.  strues,  f.,  heap. 

lobes,  f.,  ruin.  suboles,  f.,  offspring. 

lues,  f.,  plague.  tabes,  f.,  wasting. 

moles,  f.,  mass.  torques,  c.,  necklace. 

nubes,  f.,  cloud.  vates,  c.,  seer. 

palumbes,  c.,  wood-pigeon.  vepres,  m.,  bramble. 

b.  A  few  stems  in  bri-  and  tri-  drop  the  i-  and  develop  a 
parasitic  e.     (Cf.  1O3,  e,  and  97,  1.)     Thus  :  — 

Stem  Norn. 

imbri-  imber,  m.,  shower. 

Ihitri-  linter,  f.,  boat. 

NOTE.  There  was  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  noons  with  i-  stems  to 
pass  into  consonant  stems,  and  between  the  nouns  with  complete  i-  stem 
forms  and  those  with  complete  consonant  stem  forms  are  found  various 
words  whose  forms  show  different  stages  in  the  passage  from  the  former 
to  the  latter. 

*  Such  nouns  were  originally  neuter  adjectives. 


THIRD    DECLENSION.  —  CONSONANT   AND   I-   STEMS.     39 


>  G 


0 

• 


S,   2-   2-   S.   S. 


. 


P-«S    O 
co    *    CO 


B    B 
g.  §. 


B   B   B 

&  I  5 


• 

PI 


r  3,  3. 

(D  OB       CT 


I  S 


II 

•  I 

T    u 

S1 


B  B 

cr  cr 

s*  ®i 

£  M 

B 


i  i  r  „ 

a    1 


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I  I 

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CQ  v 


i « 


s 


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ti 

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cc   OK? 

S-  2. 

P    a 

e-t-  CfQ 

g*g 

».  ^ 

p   p- 

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r^ 


S-       P     B     P     B 

Mfl! 

R  frs  B 
g  ' 

-^         SB       P       P       P 
>-b       (D      CD      (D      (D 

p,  Si  ?.  Si 


sir 


g,  g,  g,  g,  g. 

*     s  g:  f 


§  §  § 


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^      CO 

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aq    i 

&  I 


40 


INFLECTION. 


a.  Besides  nouns  like  aetas,  the  nouns  which  have  consonant 
stems  in  the  singular  and  i-  stems  in  the  plural  are  chiefly  the 
following  monosyllables  :  — 

Nom.  Stem  Gen. 

arx,  f.,  citadel  arc(i)-  arcis 

dens,  m.,  tooth  dent(i)-  dentis 

dos,  f.,  dowry  dot(i)~  dotis 

fons,  m.,  fountain  font(i)-  fontis 

fur,  m.,  thief  fur(i)-  furis 

mas,  m.,  male  mar(i)-  maris 

mons,  m.,  mountain  mont(i)-  montis 

nix,  f.,  snow  niv(i)-  nivis 

nox,  f.,  night  noct(i)-  noctis 

pons,  m.,  bridge  pont(i)-  pontis 

strix,  f.,  screech-owl  strig(i)-  strigis 

urbs,  f.,  city  urb(i)-  urbis 

PECULIAR  NOUNS. 

110.  Three  nouns,  vis,  force,  os,  bone,  and  bos,  ox  or 
cow,  show  peculiarities  of  declension  which  are  best  seen 
when  the  nouns  are  given  in  full.  Thus :  — 

vis,  f.,  force.      os,  n.,  bone. 


Stem 


Sing,  vl- 
Plur.  viri- 


(i)- 


b5s,  c.,  ox  or  cow. 
bov- 


Nom.  &  V.  vis 

Gen.  vis  (rare) 

Dat. 

Ace.  vim 

Abl.  vl 

N.,  A.  &  V.  vires 
Gen.  virium 

Dat.  &  Abl.   viribus 


Singidar. 

OS 

b5s 

ossis 

bovis 

ossi 

bovi 

OS 

bovem 

osse 

bove 

Plural. 


ossium 
ossibus 


boves 
bourn 
bobus  or  bubus 


111.  Other  peculiar  forms  are  as  follows :  — 

(1.)   Senex.  m.,  old  person,  has  a  shorter  stem  in  the  oblique 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  —  REMARKS    ON   CASE-FORMS.      41 

cases    and    in   the  plural.      Thus :  gen.  senis,   dat.   sent,  ace. 
senem,  etc. 

(2.)   Card,  f.,  flesh,  gen.  carnis,  has  genitive  plural  carnium. 

(3.)  luppiter,  m.,  Jupiter  (Father  Jove),  has  in  the  oblique 
cases  lovis,  lovl,  lovem,  love. 

(4.)  Three  nouns  have  a  longer  stem  in  the  oblique  cases 
than  in  the  nominative.     They  are :  — 
Nom.  &  Voc.    iter,  n.,  road,    iecur,  n.,  liver.         supellex,  f.,  furniture. 

Gen.  itineris        iecinoris  or  iecoris  supellectilis 

Dat.  itineri          iecinori  or  iecori  supellectili 

etc.  etc.  etc. 

NOTE  1.  The  following  monosyllabic  nouns  are  not  used  in  the  genitive 
plural :  cor,  n.,  heart ;  cos,  f.,  whetstone  ;  fax,  f.,  torch ;  faex,  f.,  dregs  ; 
lux,  f.,  light;  near,  f.,  death;  os,  n.,  mouth;  pax,  f.,  peace;  praes,  m., 
bondsman;  ros,  n.,  dew;  sal,  m.,  salt;  sol,  m.,  sun;  tus,  n.,  frankincense; 
vas,  m.,  voucher ;  ver,  n.,  spring. 

NOTE  2.  IMS,  n.,  right,  and  rus,  n.,  country,  have  in  the  plural  only  the 
nominative  and  accusative  cases. 

REMARKS  ON  CASE-FORMS. 

112.  The  locative  ending  of  the  third  declension  is  -I 
or  -e  for  the  singular,  -ibus  (as  in  the  ablative)  for  the 
plural.     Thus :  Karthaginl  or  Karihagine,  at  Carthage  ; 
Sardibus,  at  Sardis. 

113.  The  accusative  singular  ends  in  -im  in  the  follow- 
ing words  :  — 

a.  Always  in  Greek  words,  as  Dap/mis,  and  in  names  of 
rivers,  as  Tiberis,  and  in  — 

buris,  plough-handle.  sitis,  thirst. 

cucumis,  cucumber.  tussis,  cough. 

ravis,  hoarseness.  vis,  force. 

Also   in    adverbs  which  were  once   accusatives,  like  partim, 
amussim,  etc. 

b.  Sometimes  in  — 

febris,  fever.  turris,  tower. 

puppis,  stern.  securis,  axe. 

restis,  rope.  sementis,  a  sowing. 
And  rarely  in  several  other  words. 


42  INFLECTION. 

114.  The  ablative  singular  ends  in  -I  in  the  follow- 
ing:— 

a.  Always  in  the  words  which  have  only  -im  hi  the  accusa- 
tive, and  in  securis. 

b.  In  certain  adjectives  used  as  nouns  :  — 

aequdlis,  a  contemporary.  gentllis,  a  family  connection. 

annalis,  a  historical  record,  molaris,  a  mill-stone. 

aqudlis,  a  wash-basin.  primipilarisj  a  military  officer. 

consuldris,  an  ex-consul.  tributes,  a  fellow  tribesman. 

c.  In  neuters,  except  the  following :  — 

baccar,  a  plant ;  iubar,  a  ray  of  light ;  nectar,  nectar ;  and 
sometimes  (in  verse),  mare,  sea,  and  rete,  net. 

d.  Sometimes  in  the  following  :  — 

amnis,  river.  finis,  end.  ovis,  sheep. 

(iris,  bird.  Ignis,  fire.  pelvis,  basin. 

axis,  axle.  imber,  shower.  sementis,  sowing. 

bills,  bile.  mane,  morning.  sors,  lot. 

classis,  fleet.  messis,  harvest.  strigilis,  flesh-scraper. 

cldvis,  key.  ndvis,  ship.  turris,  tower. 

febris,  fever. 

And  the  following  adjectives  used  as  nouns  :  — 
adfinis,  a  connection  by  marriage,    rivdlis,  rival. 
bipennis,  two-edged  axe.  sapiens,  philosopher. 

canalis,  water-pipe.  triremis,  trireme. 

familiaris,  friend.  vocdlis,  vowel. 

natalis,  birth-day.  aedtlis,  aedile  (rarely). 

115.  The  ablative  singular  ends  in  -e  in  fames,  hunger, 
and  in  -e  in  Soracte  and  in  most  names  of  towns  which 
end  in  -e,  as  Praenestc. 

116.  The  genitive  plural  ends  in  -um  in  the  following 
nouns  (though  they  have  i-  stems)  :  — 

a.  Always  in  — 

canis,  dog  ;  invents,  youth  (originally  consonant  stems). 
ambages,  riddle  ;  volucris,  bird. 


THIRD   DECLENSION.  —  GENDER. 


43 


b.  Sometimes  in  — 

apis,  bee.  sedes,  seat. 

caedes,  bloodshed.  strues,  pile. 

clddes,  disaster.  suboles,  offspring. 

mensis,  month.  vates,  bard. 

c.  Also  in  nouns  in  -tas ;  as,  civitds,  gen.  plur.  civitdtum  or 
cwitdtium ;  and  rarely  in  names  denoting  nationality,  in  -as, 
-atis,  or  -is,  -itis ;  as,  Arpinds,  Samnis. 

117.  The    accusative    plural    in   -is   is   common   with 
i-  stems,  but  -es  is  also  found  in  all  words. 

a.  In  the  nominative  plural  -is  is  very  rare.  An  old  form  in 
-eis  also  occurs  in  both  accusative  and  nominative. 

NOTE.     For  other  old  or  rare  forms  see  Biicheler's  Grundrvss. 
GENDER. 

118.  (1.)  Nouns  with  the  following  endings  are  MAS- 
CULINE :  — 

-er,  -gs,  -or,  -6s,  -5  (except  -do,  -g5,  and  abstracts  and 
collectives  in  -io),  also  -n  (except  -men). 

(2.)  Nouns  with  the  following  endings  are  FEMININE  :  — 

-as,  -es,  -is,  -us,  -ys,  -s  preceded  by  a  consonant,  -do, 
-go,  and  abstracts  and  collectives  in  -io. 

(3.)  Nouns  with  the  following  endings  are  NEUTER  :  — 

-a,  -e,  -i,  -y,  -c,  -1,  -t,  -men,  -ar,  -ur,  -us. 

119.  The  most  common  exceptions  to  these  rules  are  as 
follows :  — 

(1.)  Masculine  are  — 

as,  a  piece  of  money,     mensis,  month.  pons,  bridge. 

vas,  bondsman.  orbis,  circle.  aries,  ram. 

amnis,  river.  pdnis,  bread.  paries,  wall. 

collis,  hill.  unguis,  nail.  pes,  foot. 

ensis,  sword.  dens,  tooth.  ordo,  order. 

ignis,  fire.  fons,  spring.  sol,  sun. 

lapis,  stone.  mons,  mountain. 


OF    THE 

"UNIVERSITY 


44  INFLECTION. 

(2.)  Feminine  are  — 

arbor,  tree.  seges,  crop. 

dos,  dowry.  pecus,*  sheep. 

(3.)  Common  are  — 

bos,  ox  or  cow.  canis,  dog.  iuvenis,  youth. 

Gustos,  guard.  cinis,  ashes.  pulvis,  dust. 

sacerdos,  priest  or  clvis,  citizen.  testis,  witness. 

priestess.  crlnis,  hair.  calx,  lime. 

torques,  necklace.  finis,  end.  calx,  heel. 

vates,  bard.  funis,  rope.  w?7s,  mouse. 

anguis,  snake.  Iwstis,  enemy.  sus,  swine. 

(4.)  Neuter  are  — 

cadaver,  corpse.         cor,  heart.  inguen,  groin. 

papdver,  poppy.         aes,  copper.  unguen,  ointment. 

iter,  road.  fas,  right.  crus,  leg. 

i(ber,  teat.  nefas,  wrong.  ius,  right. 

vor,  spring.  vas,  vase.  rus,  country. 

verber,  scourge.         os,  mouth.  tus,  frankincense. 

aeqiwr,  sea.  os,  bone. 

Less  common  exceptions  are  as  follows :  — 

120.  Masculine  are  — 

(1.)  Greek  nouns  in  as  (gen.  -antis);  as,  elephds,  ele- 
phant ;  also,  axis,  axle ;  buris,  plough-handle ;  caulis, 
stalk  ;  cucumis,  cucumber ;  fastis,  bundle  ;  follis,  bel- 
lows ;  fastis,  club  ;  pistis,  fish  ;  ^>ostis,  post ;  torris,  fire- 
brand ;  vectis,  lever ;  vermis,  worm  ;  vomis,  plough-share. 

(2.)  Oalix,  Gup',fornix,  arch ;  phoenix,  a  fabulous  bird; 
onyx,  a  precious  stone  ;  quincunx,  septunx,  etc. ;  auceps, 
bird-catcher ;  chalybs,  steel ;  cliens,  client ;  quadrans, 
sextans,  etc. ;  compounds  of  dens,  except  bidens,  sheep. 

(3.)  comedo,  glutton ;  cardo,  hinge ;  harpago,  grap- 
pling-hook  ;  sal,  salt  (sometimes  neuter  in  singular)  ;  tur- 
tur,  turtle  dove  ;  vultur,  vulture ;  flamen,  a  kind  of  priest. 

*  Priscian  quotes  it  once  from  Ennius  as  masculine,  and  a  neuter  plural 
form  pecuda  is  found. 


THIRD    DECLENSION.  —  GREEK    NOUNS.  45 

(4.)  Generally,  also,  callis,  path ;  cdnalis,  water-pipe ; 
dunis,  haunch ;  corbis,  basket ;  sentis,  brier ;  grex,  herd ; 
pumex,  pumice  stone ;  senex,  old  person ;  rudens,  rope ; 
tigris  (in  prose  ;  always  feminine  in  poetry),  tiger. 

121.  Feminine   are   linter,   boat ;   merges,   sheaf ;   cos, 
whetstone  ;  eos,  morning ;  card,  flesh ;  and  Greek  nouns 
in  -5,  like  echo,  echo. 

122.  Common  are   antistes,   priest;  palumbes,    wood- 
pigeon  ;  cortex,  bark ;  obex,  barrier ;  onyx    (meaning  an 
onyx   box) ;    sardonyx,  a   precious   stone ;    sandyx,  the 
color  scarlet ;  silex,  flint ;  forceps,  pincers  ;  scrobs,  ditch ; 
serpens,  serpent ;  stirps,  tree  trunk. 

123.  Neuter  are  Greek  nouns  in  -as  (genitive  -atis), 
and  in  -es;  as,  hippomanes  ;  also,  deer,  chick-pea;  piper, 
pepper;  spinier,  a  kind  of  bracelet;  tuber,  a  swelling; 
ador,  spelt ;  marmor,  marble  ;  gluten,  glue. 

GREEK  NOUNS. 

124.  Greek  nouns  in  the  third  declension  seldom  show 
Greek  forms  except  in  the  genitive  and  accusative  singu- 
lar and  accusative  plural.     Examples  of  their  declension 
are  as  follows :  — 

herds,  m.,  hero,     lampas,  f.,  torch,      basis,  f.,  base. 

Singular. 

N.&V.    herds  lampas  basis 

G.  herois  lampados  basis  (-eos) 

D.  heroi  lampadi  basl 

Ac.  her5a  lampada  basin 

Ab.  her5e  lampade  basl 

Plural. 

N.  &  V.    her5es  lampades  bases 

G.  heroum  lampadum  basium 

D.  &  Ab.  heroism  lampadibus  basibus 

Ac.  her5as  lampada^  basis  (-eis) 


46 


INFLECTION. 


N. 

G. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 


tigris,  c.,  tiger.        nais,  f.,  naiad,      chelys,  f.,  lyre. 


Singular. 


tigris 

tigris  (-idos) 
tigri 

tigrin  (-ida) 
tigris 
tigrl  (-ide) 


N.  &  V.  tigres 

G.  tigrium 

D.  &  Ab.  tigribus 

Ac.  tigris  (-idas) 


nais 

naidos 

naidi 

naida 

nais 

naide 


Plural. 


naides 

naidum 

naidibus 

naidas 


chelys 


chelyn 
chely 


Proper  Names. 

Examples  of  the  declension  of  Greek  proper  names  are 
as  follows :  — 

f. 


N. 

G. 

D. 

Ac. 

V. 

Ab. 


m. 


m. 


N. 

Socrates 

Dld5 

Simois 

G. 

Socratis  (-1) 

Didus  (-onis) 

Simoentis 

D. 

S5crati 

Did5  (-oni) 

Simoenti 

Ac. 

SScratem  (-en) 

Dido  (-5nem) 

Simoenta 

V. 

Socrates  (-e) 

Dido 

Simois 

Ab. 

S5crate 

Dido  (-one) 

Simoente 

m. 

Capys 

Capyos 

Capyi 

Capyn 

Capy 

Capye 


m. 

Daphnis 

Daphnidis 

Daphnidi 

Daphnim  (-in) 

Daphni 

Daphni 


FOURTH   DECLENSION.  47 

Special  Forms. 

125.  (1.)  Like  Simois  are  declined  stems  in  ant-,  ent-, 
ont-,  tint-;    as,    adamas,  gen.  adamantis ;    Xenophon, 
gen.  Xenophontis  ;  Trapezus,  gen.  Trapezuntis,  etc. 

(2.)  But  some  in  ont-  are  thoroughly  latinized  and  de- 
clined like  DracO)  gen.  Draconis.  So  also  Agamemnon 
or  Agamemno,  but  with  short  o  in  the  stem,  Agamemno- 
nis,  etc. 

(3.)  Stems  in  ant-  have  the  Latin  form  in  the  nomina- 
tive sometimes  as,  Atlans^  elephdns;  and  also  have  a  in 
the  vocative  as,  Atla. 

(4.)  Neuters  in  -a  have  a  dative  and  ablative  plural  in 
-is  after  the  fashion  of  the  second  declension ;  as,  poema, 
dat.  and  abl.  poematls. 

FOURTH  DECLENSION 

126.  The   fourth   declension  consists  of   nouns  whose 
stems  end  in  u-.     The  nominative  singular  ends  in   -us 
rnasc.  (and  fern.),  -u  neuter.     Thus :  — 

fructus,  m.,  fruit.  cornu,  m.,  horn. 

Stem                            fructu-  cornu-    - 

Singular. 

Nom.  &  Voc.                fructus  cornu 

Gen.                              fructus  cornus 

Dat.                               fructui  (-u)  cornu 

Ace.                             fructum  cornu 

Abl.                              fructu  cornu 

Plural. 

Nom.  &  Voc.  fructus  cornua 

Gen.  fructuum  cornuum 

Dat.  fructibus  cornibus 

Ace.  fructus  cornua 

Abl.  fructibus  cornibus 


48  INFLECTION. 

EXCEPTIONS  IN  GENDER. 

127.  The  following  nouns  are  feminine :  — 

acus,  needle.  manus,  hand. 

colus,  distaff.  portictis,  gallery. 

domus,  house.  Qutnquatrus   (pi.),  Feast  of 

ficus,  fig.  Minerva. 

Idus,  pi.  Ides.  tribitSj  tribe. 

Also  a  few  by  signification  ;  and  rarely  arcus,  bow ;  penus,  pro- 
visions; specus,  cave. 

a.  Secus,  sex,  is  neuter. 

CASE-FORMS. 

128.  (1.)  Old  genitives  in  -uos  and  -uis  are  found  in 
some  words ;  as,  senatuos  ;  friictms. 

(2.)  A  genitive  in  I-,  after  the  analogy  of  the  second 
declension,  is  found  in  senati,  and  in  early  Latin  in  a 
few  other  words. 

(3.)  A  few  datives  in  u-  occur. 

(4.)  A  contracted  genitive  plural  in  -um  is  also 
found. 

129.  The  following   nouns  retain  the  u-  of  the  stem 
(not  weakened  to  i-)*  in  the  dative  and  ablative  plural. 

artus,  limb,  dat.  and  abl.  pi.  artubus. 
partus,  birth,  "  partubus. 

portiis,  harbor,  "  (portubus). 

tribus,  tribe,  "  tribiibus. 

verii,  spit,  "  (verubus). 

a.  All  but  partus  have  also  the  form  in  -ibus,  in  classical 
times.     With  portus  and  veru  that  is  the  commoner  form. 

b.  Words  of   two  syllables   in   -cus   have   more    commonly 
-ubus  in  the  ablative  ;  as,  lacm,  lacubus. 

130.  Domus,  house,  has  two  stems,  domu-  and  domo, 

«  Cf .  59,  and  90. 


FIFTH   DECLENSION.  49 

and  is  declined  as  follows  (the  commoner  form  in  each 

case  is  put  first)  :  — 

domus,  f.,  house. 
Stem  domu-  and  domo- 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nora.  &  Voc.     domus  domus 

Gen.  domus,  domi  domuum,  dornorum 

Dat.  domul,  domo  domibus 

Ace.  domum  domos,  domus 

Abl.  domo  (domu)  domibus 

a.  Domi   is  used   only  as   locative,   except   in   Plautus.     A 
locative  domul  also  occurs. 

131.  Most  names  of  plants,  and  colus,  distaff,  have  also 
forms  of   the  second  declension  ;  penus^  provisions,  has 
forms  in  both  the  second  and  third  declensions,* 

FIFTH    DECLENSION. 

132.  The  fifth  declension  consists  of  the  nouns  whose 
stems  end  in  e-.     The  nominative  singular  ends  in  -es. 
All  the  nouns  are  feminine  except  dies  (common  in  the 
singular,  masculine  in  the  plural)  and  merldies  (mas- 
culine).    They  are  thus  declined  :  — 


res,  thing. 

Stem  re- 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Nom.  <5 

b  Voc.              res 

res 

Gen. 

rel 

rerum 

Dat. 

rSI 

rebus 

Ace. 

rem 

res 

Abl. 

re 

rebus 

*  The  fourth  declension  seems  to  have  been  an  offshoot  from  the  third. 
Cf.  genitive  forms  like  nominus,  from  nomen,  and  sendtuos,  from  sendtus. 
Later,  confusion  arose  between  the  fourth  and  the  second  declensions 
through  their  similarity  in  the  nominative  singular.  Hence  forms  like 
seniiti,  domorum. 


50  INFLECTION. 

dies,  day.  Stem  die- 

Singidar.  Plural. 

Nom.  &  Voc.       dies  dies 

Gen.  diel  dierum 

Dat.  diel  diebus 

Ace.  diem  dies 

Abl.  die  diebus 

a.  Dies  is  as  a  rule  feminine  only  when  it  denotes  duration 
of  time  or  a  fixed  day. 

CASE-FORMS. 

133.  (1.)  Old  forms  of  both  genitive  and  dative  singu- 
lar in  -e  and  -i,  and  of  genitive  only  in  -es,  occur,  but  rarely ; 
as,  fide,  dii)  rabies.  Plebl  is  common  as  a  genitive. 

(2.)  Only  res  and  dies  are  used  in  full  in  the  plural. 
The  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative  plural  are  found 
in  the  following :  — 

acies,  line  of  battle,    fades,  face.  series,  series. 

effigies,  effigy.  glacies,  ice.  species,  shape,  form. 

chivies,  overflowing,  progenies,  offspring,   spes,  hope. 

(3.)  The  stem  vowel  is  shortened  in  the  genitive  and  da- 
tive singular  when  a  consonant  precedes  it ;  as,  rei,  from 
res,  thing ;  fidei,  from  jides,  faith  ;  spei,  from  spes,  hope. 

a.  All  the  nouns  of  the  fifth  declension  but  four — fides,  ple- 
bes,*  res,  and  spes  —  end  in  -ies,  and  all  nouns  in  -ies  are  of  this 
declension,  except  five  of  the  third  declension  —  abies,  fir  ;  aries, 
battering  ram ;  paries,  partition  wall ;  quies  and  requies,  rest. 

b.  The  nouns  in  -ies  of  the  fifth  declension  (except  dies  and 
niprlffies)  generally  have,  especially  in  the  genitive  and  dative 
singular,  and  in  the  plural,  corresponding  forms  in   the   first 
declension.      Thus,    materia,  gen.    mater  iae,  beside  materies, 
gen.  materiel,  etc.f 

*  Less  common  than  the  third  declension  form  plebs. 

t  These  nouns  in  -ies  seem  to  have  been  developed  from  the  stems  in  a- 
originally.  (See  Handb.  der  Altert.,  vol.  ii.,  B.,  p.  203,  §5.)  The  other  nouns 
of  the  fifth  declension  —  except  perhaps  res  —  were  probably  originally 
8-  stems  of  the  third  declension,  like  nubes.  (Cf .  108,  a,  109.) 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS.  51 

IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 

134.  There   are   four   classes   of   irregular   nouns,   as 
follows :  — 

(1.)  HETEROGENEOUS  nouns  (heterogenea),  or  such  as 
have  forms  of  different  genders. 

(2.)  HETEROCLITES  (heteroclita),  or  nouns  which  have 
forms  of  different  declensions. 

(3.)  DEFECTIVE  nouns  (defectwa),  or  such  as  lack 
some  of  their  parts. 

(4.)  REDUNDANT  nouns  (abundanticL),  or  such  as  have 
more  forms  than  the  usual  number. 

135.  The  commonest  heterogeneous  nouns  are  the  fol- 
lowing :  — 

(1.)  Masculine  in  singular,  neuter  in  plural :  — 

Avernus,    a   certain 

lake,  plural  Averna. 
Tartarus^  the  lower 

regions,  "       Tartar  a. 

iocus,  jest,  "       iocl  and  ioca. 

loom,  place,  I    5  ^.P^ages  in  books;  topics. 

( loca,  places. 

sibiltis,  whistling,  "       sibill  and  slbila. 

(2.)  Feminine  in  singular,  neuter  in  plural :  — 

carbasiis,  sail,  plural  carbasa. 

(3.)  Neuter  in  singular,  masculine  in  plural:  — 

caelum,  heaven,         plural  cadi. 

frenum,  hridle,  "      frerii  andfrena. 

rastrum,  rake,  "       rastrl,  and  more  rarely  rostra. 

(4.)  Neuter  in  singular,  feminine  in  plural :  — 
epulum,  feast,  plural  epulae. 

balneum,  bath,  "      balneae  and  balnea, 

niindinum,  market  day,      "     nundinae. 


52  INFLECTION. 

136.  Examples  of  heteroclites  are  as  follows  :  — 

iugerum,  n.,  acre.  vas,  n.,  vessel. 

Singular. 

Norn.  &  Ace.  iugerum  vas 

Gen.  iugeri  vasis, 

Dat.  iugero  vasl 

Abl.  iugero  and  (iugere)  vase 

Plural. 

Nom.  &  Ace.  iugera  vasa 

Gen.  iugerum  vasorum 

Dat.  &  Abl.    iugeribus  and  iugeris  vasis 

a.  Vesper,  evening,  has   also  vespera,  ace.  vesperum,  more 
rarely  vesperam,  abl.  vespere  and  vespera,  and  as  ablative  of 
time  (see  424)  generally  the  locative  from  vesperi.     It  has  no 
plural. 

b.  Requies,  rest,  has  ace.  requiem  oftener  than  requietem ; 
abl.  requie. 

NOTE.  The  student  will  remember  other  examples  of  heteroclite  forms 
already  met  under  the  different  declensions. 

137.  The  commonest  defective  nouns  are  the  follow- 
ing:— 

(1.)  Indeclinable  (indeclinabilid)  are  — 

fas,  right.  instar,  image. 

nefas,  wrong.  mane,  morning. 

nihil,  nothing.  pondo,  weight. 

a.  The  first  four  are  used  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusa- 
tive, but  nihil  has  a  collateral  form  nihilum,  nihill,  niJiilo  ;  mane 
is  used  in  the  nominative,  accusative,  and  ablative.  (Cf.  114,  d.) 

(2.)  Fruyis,  of  fruit,  and  dicionis,  of  sway,  have  no 
nominative. 

(3.)  Nemo,  no  one,  Las  no  vocative  and  no  plural,  and 
in  classical  Latin  110  genitive  and  no  ablative ;  these  cases 
are  supplied  by  the  pronominal  adjective  nullus. 

(4.)  The  following  are  used  only  as  given  :  — 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS. 


impetus,      fors, 

help  (sing.),  turn.  attack.  chance, 

power  (plur.). 


Singular. 


Nom. 

Gen. 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Abl. 


opis 

opem 
ope 


V1C1S 


impetus      fors 


impetu 


vicem        impetum     

vice  impetu        forte 


Nom.  &  Ace.  opes 
Gen.  opum 

Dat.  &  Abl.    opibus 


Plural. 
vices 


impetus 


vicibus      

a.  Sponte,  will,  accord,  is  used  only  in  the  ablative  singular. 

So  also  various,  nouns  of  the  fourth  declension,  as  admonitu, 

iussu,  arbitratu,  natu,  etc. 

See  also  under  the  third  declension,  110,  and  fifth  declension,  133. 

138.  (1.)  Proper  names,  and  some  other  nouns,  from 
their  meaning  naturally  have  no  plural.  The  following 
nouns  also  lack  the  plural :  — 


aether,  the  sky. 

caenum,  mud. 

ebur,  ivory. 

gelu,  frost. 

humus,  the  ground. 

iubar,  radiance. 

lac,  milk. 

letum,  death. 

llmus,  mud. 
And  some  others  which  are  less  common. 

(2.)  Abstract  nouns  are  used  in  the  plural  as  a  rule 
only  to  denote  instances  or  occasions  of  the  quality,  action, 
etc.  See  437,  3. 

139.  (1.)  Names  of  festivals  and  games,  and  several 


lues,  plague. 
mane,  morning. 
piibes,  youth. 
specimen,  example. 
ver,  spring. 
vesper,  evening. 
virus,  poison. 
volgus,  crowd. 


54 


INFLECTION. 


names  of  places  and  books,  have  no  singular ;  as,  Baccha- 
nalia, Kalcndae,  Bucolica,  Athenae. 

(2.)  Other  common  nouns  which  lack  the  singular  are 
the  following :  — 


acta  (2  *),  records. 
altdria  (3),  altar. 
angustiae,  narrow  pass. 
argutiae,  witticisms. 
arma  (2),  weapons. 
bigae,  a  two-horse  chariot. 
canl,  gray  hairs. 
cunabida  (2), )  ^^ 
cunae,  ) 

deliciae,  darling. 
dlvitiae,  riches. 
excubiae,  watch. 
exsequiae,  funeral  rites. 
exta  (2),  entrails. 
exuviae,  spoils. 


fasti,  calendar. 
fauces  (3),  jaws. 
fides  (3),  lyre. 
grates  t  (3),  thanks. 
indutiae,  a  truce. 

140.  The  following  nouns  usually  differ  in  meaning  in 
the  different  numbers  :  — 


induviae,  clothes. 
Insidiae,  ambuscade. 
liberi,  children. 
mdiores  (3),  ancestors. 
manes  (3),  shades  of  the  dead. 
manubiae,  spoils  of  war. 
minae,  threats. 
moenia  (3),  walls. 
munia  %  (2),  official  duties. 
nugae,  trifles. 
nuptiae,  a  marriage. 
penates  (3),  household  gods. 
phalerae,  trappings. 
praecordia  (2),  diaphragm. 
quadrigae,  team  of  four  horses. 
reliquiae,  remains. 
scalae,  ladder. 
tenebrae,  darkness. 
virgulta  (2),  bushes. 


Singular. 

-is,  f.,  temple, 


aqua,  f.,  water, 
auxilium,  n.,  aid, 
career,  in.,  prison, 
castrum,  n.,  fort, 


Plural, 
aedes,  -ium,  house. 

aquae,  a  watering  place. 
auxilia,  auxiliary  troops. 
carceres,  racecourse  barriers. 
castra,  a  camp. 


*  The  number  annexed  shows  the   declension,  wherever  doubt  might 
arise. 

t  Used  only  in  the  nominative  and  accusative. 
|  Classical  only  in  nominative  and  accusative. 


IRREGULAR  NOUNS.  —  ADJECTIVES. 


55 


codicillus,  m.,  bit  of  wood, 
comitium,  n.,  place  of  as- 
sembly, 

copia,  f.,  plenty, 
facultds,  f.,  ability, 
finis,  m.  and  f.,  end, 
fortuna,  f.,  fortune, 
gratia,  f.,  favor, 
impedimentum,  n.,  a  hin- 
drance, 

littera,  f.,  letter  of  the  al- 
phabet, 

Indus,  m.,  pastime, 
ndtdlis,  m.,  birthday, 
opera,  f.,  work,  task, 
opis  (gen.),  f.,  help, 
pars,  L,  part, 

plaga,  f.,  region,  tract, 
rostrum,  n.,  beak,  prow, 
sal,  m.  and  n.,  salt, 

NOTE.     Examples  of  redundant 
geneous  nouns  and  heteroclites. 


codicilli,  tablets. 
comitia,  an  assembly  for  elec- 
tion. 

copiae,  troops,  forces. 
facilitates,  property. 
fines,  bounds,  territory. 
fortunae,  possessions. 
grdtiae,  thanks. 
impedimenta,  baggage. 

litterae,  epistle  or  literature. 

liidi,  public  games. 

natales,  birth,  lineage. 

operae,  workmen. 

opes,  -um,  means,  resources. 

partes,     a     part     played,     or 

(often)*  political  party. 
plagae,  nets,  toils. 
rostra,  the  Rostra.f 
sales,  witticisms, 
nouns  are  seen  in  many  of  the  hetero- 


ADJECTIVES. 

141.  Adjectives  are  declined  like  nouns,  but  there  are 
no  u-  stems  J  or  e-  stems  among  them.    Therefore  only  the 
first  three  declensions  are  used. 

142.  Adjectives  are  best  divided  into  two  classes  for 
declension  :  — 

I.  Adjectives  with  o-  stems  in  masculine  and  neuter, 
and  a-  stems  in  feminine. 

*  The  singular  is  occasionally  so  used. 

t  A  part  of  the  Roman  Forum  which  was  adorned  with  the  prows  of 
some  war  vessels. 

J  Unless  the  rare  compounds  of  manus  be  counted  an  exception.  An 
accusative  plural  in  -us  is  found  of  anguimanus,  once  masculine,  once 
feminine,  in  Lucretius. 


56  INFLECTION. 

II.  Adjectives  with  i-  stems  or  with  consonant  stems. 

FIRST    AND    SECOND    DECLENSION. 

143.  Adjectives  of  the  first  class  are  said  to  be  of  the 
First  and  Second  Declension.  They  are  declined  like 
nouns  of  these  declensions.  Thus :  — 


Stem 

Nora. 

Gen, 

Dat. 

Ace. 

Voc. 

AbL 


M. 

bono- 

bonus 

boni 

bono 

bonum 

bone 

bono 


N.&V.    bom 
Gen.         bonorum 
D.  &  A.  bonis 
Ace.         bonos 


Stem 


tenero- 


N.  &V.  tener 

Gen.  tener! 

Dat.  tener5 

Ace.  tenemm 

AbL  tenero 


N.  &  V.  tenerl 

Gen.  tenerorum 

D.  &  A.  teneris 

Ace.  teneros 


bonus,  good. 

F. 
bona- 

Sinyular. 
bona 
bonae 
bonae 
bonam 
bona 
bona 

Plural. 
bonae 
bonarum 
bonis 
bonas 

tener,  tender, 
tenera- 
Singular. 
tenera 
tenerae 
tenerae 
teneram 
tenera 

Plural. 
tenerae 
tenerarum 
teneris 
teneras 


N. 

bono- 

bonum 

boni 

bono 

bonum 

bonum 

bono 

bona 
bonorum 
bonis 
bona 

tenero- 

tenerum 

teneri 

tenero 

tenerum 

tenero 

tenera 
tenerorum 
teneris 
tenera 


ADJECTIVES   OF   FIRST  AND   SECOND   DECLENSION.      57 

piger,  lazy. 
Stem        pigro-  pigra-  pigro- 

Singular. 

N.  &  V.  piger         pigra  pigrum 

Gen.    pigri         pigrae  pigri 

Dat.    pigro         pigrae  pigro 

Ace.    pigrum       pigram  pigrum 

Abl.    pigro         pigra  pigro 

Plural. 

N.  &  V.   pigri  pigrae  pigra 

Gen.         pigrorum  pigrarum  pigrorum 

D.  &  A.   pigrls  pigrls  pigrls 

Ace.         pigros  pigras  pigra 

a.  Adjectives  in  -ius  have  the  full  forms  in  the  genitive  and 
vocative  singular ;  as,  regii  and  regie,  from  regius. 

144.  In  tener  and  the  few  adjectives  declined  like  it 
the  e  before  the  r  belongs  to  the  stem,  as  in  the  case  of 
analogous  nouns.     (Cf.   97,  2.) 

a.  These  adjectives  are  — 

asper,  rough.  miser,  wretched. 

exter,  foreign.  prosper,  prosperous. 

gibber,  crook-backed.  satur,  full  (satiated). 

lacer,  torn.  semi-fer,  half-human. 
liber,  free. 
And  the  compounds  of  gero  and  fero ;  as,  laniger,  letifer,  etc. 

NOTE.     Satur  is  the  only  adjective  of  the  second  declension  having  any 
vowel  but  e  before  the  final  r. 

145.  Six  adjectives  in  -us  and  three  in  -er  form  the 
genitive  singular  in  -ius  and  the  dative  singular  in  -I  for 
all  genders.     These  are  — 

alius,  another,  totus,  whole,  alter,  altera,  alterum,  the  other. 
nullus,  none.  ullus,  any.  uter,  utra,  utrum,  which  of  two. 
solus,  alone.  unus,  one.  neuter,  neutra,  neutrum,  neither. 


58  INFLECTION. 

146.  They  are  thus  declined  in  the  singular :  — 
unus,  one. 

N. 

uno- 

unum 

unius 

tin! 

unum 

unum 

uno 

alio- 

aliud 
alias 
alii 
aliud 


alio 


M. 

F. 

Stem 

uno- 

una- 

Nom. 

unus 

una 

Gen. 

unius 

unius 

Dat. 

uni 

uni 

Ace. 

unum 

iinfl.m 

Voc. 

une 

una 

Abl. 

uno 

una 

alius,  another. 

Stem 

alio- 

alia- 

Nom. 

alius 

alia 

Gen. 

alius 

alius 

Dat. 

alii 

alii 

Ace. 

all  iim 

fl.1ifl.rn 

Voc. 





Abl. 

alio 

alia 

uter,  which  (of  two). 

Stem 

utro- 

utra- 

Nom. 

uter 

utra 

Gen. 

utrius 

utrius 

Dat 

utri 

utri 

Ace. 

utrum 

utram 

Voc. 

. 



Abl. 

utro 

utra 

utro 

The  plural  is  regular. 
a.  So  are  declined  uterque,  each ;  cdtwuter,  one  or  the  other. 

CASE-FORMS. 

147.  (1.)  The  quantity  of  the  i  of  the  genitive  singu- 
lar is  common  in  poetry. 

(2.)  The  genitive  alius  is  rare,  alterlus  being  used  instead, 
except  in  the  possessive  sense,  which  is  supplied  by  the  adjective 
alienus,  belonging  to  another. 


ADJECTIVES   OF   THIRD   DECLENSION.  59 

(3.)  The  regular  forms  of  the  genitive  and  dative  singular  are 
occasionally  found,  especially  in  early  Latin  ;  as,  nullae  (gen.), 
(Plaut.,  Mil.,  iii.,  1,  207) ;  nullo  (Cses.,  B.  £.,  vi.,  13). 

THIRD   DECLENSION. 

148.  The  adjectives  of  Class  II.  are  called  Adjectives 
of  the  Third  Declension.     They  are  declined  exactly  like 
nouns   of   the   third   declension,  except   that   the   forms 
properly  belonging  to  i-  stems  are  much  more  common 
than  in  nouns.     There  is  also  much  less  variety  in  the 
endings  of  the  nominative  singular. 

149.  Adjectives  of  the  third  declension  may  be  divided 
into  three  classes,  according  as  they  have  — 

(1.)  Three  forms  in  the  nominative  singular  for  the 
three  genders. 

(2.)  Two  forms  in  the  nominative  singular,  one  mascu- 
line and  feminine,  the  other  neuter. 

(3.)  One  form  for  all  three  genders. 

150.  Class  (1)  includes  only  certain  stems  in  ri-.     The 
i  is  dropped  in  the  nominative  singular  masculine  ;  a  para- 
sitic e  is  then  developed   before  the  r  (as  in  the  noun 
stems  under  103,  e,  and  108,  6).     The  feminine  nomina- 
tive singular  ends  in  -is,  the  neuter  in  -e,  as  in  the  corre- 
sponding nouns.     Such  adjectives  are  thus  declined :  — 

acer,  sharp.  Stem  acri- 

Singular. 

M.                               F.  N. 

Nom.  &  Voc.  acer                      acris  acre 

Gen.                acris                     acris  acris 

Dat.  &  Abl.     acri                       acri  acri 

Ace.                acrem                  acrem  acre 

Plural. 

Nom.  &  Voc.  acres                    acres  acria 

Gen.                acrium                 acrium  acrium 

Dat  &  Abl.    acribus                 acribus  acribus 

Ace.                acres  (-Is)             acres  (-Is)  acria 


60 


INFLECTION. 


151.  The  only  adjectives  of  this  class  are  — 

acer.  celeber.  pedester.  Silvester. 

alacer.  equester.  puter.  terrester. 

campester.          paluster.  saLuber.  volucer. 

celer.* 

And  the  names  of  the  months  September,  October,  November, 
December. 

a.  These  adjectives  sometimes  have  the  masculine  singular  in 
-is  like  the  feminine.     This  is  especially  the  case  with  puter, 
saluber,  and  terrester. 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  the  form  in  -er  is  sometimes  found  as 
feminine  in  early  and  late  Latin. 

c.  Volucer  has  volucrum  in  the  genitive  plural. 

152.  Class  (2)  includes  all  other  i-  stems,  and  the  com- 
paratives (consonant  stems).     They  are  thus  declined  :  — 


Stem 


roitis,  mild, 
miti- 


mltior,  milder, 
mltior- 


Singular. 


M.  &  F.                  N. 

M.  &  P.                        N. 

N.&V.  mitis           mite 

mitior             mitius 

Gen.       mitis           mitis 

miti5ris          mitiSris 

Dat.        miti             miti 

mitiori            mitiori 

Ace.       mitem        mite 

mitiorem        mitius 

Abl.       miti            miti 

mitiore  (-i)      mitiore  (-i) 

Plural. 

N.&V.  mites          mitia 

mitiSres          mitiora 

Gen.       mitium       mitium 

mitiorum        mitiorum 

D.  &  A.  mitibus      mitibus 

mitioribus      miti5ribus 

Ace.       mites  (-is)  mitia 

mitiares  (-is)  mitiora 

153.  P/ws,  more,  has  in  the  singular  only  the  forms  of 
the  neuter  gender.     The  plural  differs  from  that  of  other 

*  In  this  adjective  the  e  in  the  final  syllable  belongs  to  the  stem,  and  is 
retained  throughout. 


ADJECTIVES   OF  THIRD   DECLENSION. 


61 


comparatives  in  having  -ium  in  the  gen.  plur.    Certain 
forms  are  wanting.     The  declension  is  as  follows :  — 

plus,  more.  Stem  plur- 

Singular. 

N. 

Nom.     plus 

Gen.      plur  is  plur  ium 

pluribus 

plures  (-Is) 


plus 


Dat. 
Ace. 

Voc.      

Abl.      plure  (rare) 


Plural. 

M.  &  F.  N. 

plures  plura  (rarely  pluria) 

plurium 
pluribus 
plura 


pluribus 


M.  &F. 

N.,  V.  felix 


pluribus 

So  also  the  plural  compound  complures,  a  great  many. 
154.  Class  (3)  includes  all  consonant  stems  except  the 
comparatives.     They  are  thus  declined  :  — 

felix,  happy.  praesens,  present. 

Stem  fellc-  praesent- 

Singular. 
N.  M.  &  F. 

felix          praesens 
felicis        praesentis 
felici          praesenti 
felix  praesentem 

felici  (-e)   praesente  (-1) 

Plural. 

felicia        praesentes 
felicium    praesentium 
felicibus  praesentibus 

praesentes  (-Is)  praesentia 

Stem  veter- 


G. 

D. 

Ac. 

Ab. 


felicis 
felici 
fellcem 
felici  (-e) 


N.,  V.  felloes 

G.        felicium 

D.,  A.  felicibus 

Ac.      fellces(-is)  fellcia 

vetus,  old. 
Singular. 
M.  &  F.  N. 

N.  &  V.  vetus         vetus 
G.  veteris       veteris 

D.  veterl         veterl 

Ac.          veterem     vetus 
Ab.         vetere  (-1)  vetere  (-1) 


N. 

praesens 

praesentis 

praesenti 

praesens 

praesente\T) 


praesentia 

praesentium 

praesentibus 


Plural. 

M.  &  F.  N. 

veteres  vetera 

veterum  veterum 

veteribus  veteribus 

veteres  (-Is)  vetera 

veteribus  veteribus 


62  INFLECTION. 

CASE-FORMS. 

155.  (1.)  Adjectives,  unlike  nouns,  tend  to  the  forms 
of  the  i-  declension,  as  is  shown  particularly  by  the  abla- 
tive singular,  and  the  genitive  and  accusative  plural. 

(2.)  The  only  adjectives  which  commonly  have  -e  in 
the  ablative  singular  are  the  comparatives  and  — 
compos,  sharing  in.  praeceps,  headlong. 

desidis  (genitive),  indolent.        puber,  youthful. 
dives,  rich.  superstes,  surviving. 

pauper,  poor.  supplex,  suppliant 

particeps,  sharing.  vetus,  old.* 

a.  But  most  adjectives  of  one  ending  (Class  3,  above)  have  -e, 
when  used  as  nouns.  So  also  most  present  participles,  and  par- 
ticipial adjectives  like  praesens,  when  used  as  participles. 

(3.)  Only  a  few  adjectives  have  -um  in  the  genitive  plu- 
ral.    The  most  common  are  dives,  compos,  inops  (poor), 
praepes   (swift   of    flight),  supplex,  and   compounds   of 
nouns  which  have  -um.     Most  of  these  adjectives  lack  the 
nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative  plural  altogether. 
a.  Locuples  has  locupletum  and  locupletium. 
(4.)  Almost   all   adjectives  -can   have   the  accusative 
plural  in  -is  as  well  as  -es,  but  -is  is  less  common  in  the 
adjectives  with  consonant  stems  than  in  those  with  vowel 
stems. 

(5.)  Some  adjectives  are  indeclinable,  as  frugi  (really 
a  dative  of  Q/Htfe])  worthy,  and  nequam,  worthless ;  potis, 
pote,  possible,  is  sometimes  used  as  indeclinable,  some- 
times regularly  declined. 

(6.)  A  few  adjectives  are  used  only  in  one  or  two 
forms,  as :  — 

exspes,  without  hope,     only  nominative. 

exlex,  lawless,  nominative  and  accusative. 

mactus,  honored,  nominative  and  vocative. 

*  To  these  may  be  added  the  ablative  pernocte,  which  is  the  only  oblique 
case  used  of  pernox,  lasting  all  night. 


ADJECTIVES.  —  NUMERALS.  63 

necesse      )  ...  . 

>  necessary,        nominative  and  accusative. 
necessum  } 

pernox,  lasting  all  night,    nominative  and  ablative. 
Hebes,  dull ;  teres,  round ;  and  a  few  others,  lack  the  genitive 
plural.     Desidis,  indolent,  lacks  also  the  nominative  singular. 

(7.)  A  few  adjectives  (heteroclites)  have  besides  the 
third  declension  form  another  in  the  second  declension. 
The  most  common  are  — 

auxiliaris  and  auxilidrius  (less  common),  auxiliary. 

biiugis  (rare)  and  biiugus,  yoked  two  together. 

exanimis  (rare  in  plural)  and  exanimus,  lifeless. 

hilaris  and  hilarus,  cheerful. 

imbecillis  (rare)  and  imbecillus,  weak. 

inermis  and  inermus  (very  rare),  unarmed. 

opulens  and  opulentus,  rich. 

proclwis  and  proclwos  (less  common),  sloping. 

singularis  and  singularius,  singular. 

violens  and  violentus,  violent. 

NUMERAL  ADJECTIVES  (Numerdlia). 

156.  Numeral  adjectives  are  divided  into  three  princi- 
pal classes :     (1.)  CARDINALS  (cardinalia) ;   (2.)  ORDI- 
NALS (firdinalia)  ;  (3.)  DISTRIBUTIVES  (distributwa). 

157.  (1.)  Cardinals  simply  denote  the  number  of  things 
meant  and  answer  the  question  quot  (i.  e.,  how  many)  ? 
as,  unus,  one ;  vlgintl,  twenty. 

(2.)  Ordinals  denote  order  or  rank  and  answer  the 
question  quotus  (i.  e.,  how  many-eth)  ?  as,  primus,  first ; 
qumtus,  fifth. 

(3.)  Distributives  denote  an  equal  distribution  among  a 
given  number  of  persons  or  things,  and  answer  the 
question  quoten'i  (i.  e.,  how  many  apiece)  ?  as,  him,  two 
apiece. 

(4.)  For  convenience  the  NUMERAL  ADVERBS  are  given 
with  the  adjectives.  They  answer  the  question  quotiens 
(i.  e.,  how  many  times)  ?  as,  semel,  once ;  decies,  ten  times. 


64 


INFLECTION. 


158.  The  numeral  adjectives  (cardinals,  ordinals,  and 
distributives),  and  also  the  adverbs,  from  one  to  twenty, 


CARDINALS. 

ORDINALS. 

1  unus,  -a,  -um 

one 

primus 

2  duo,  -ae,  -o 

two 

secundus 

3  tres,  -ia 

three 

tertius 

4  quattuor 

four 

quartus 

5  quinque 

five 

qulntus 

6  sex 

six 

sextus 

7  septem 

seven 

Septimus 

8  octo 

eight 

octavus 

9  novem 

nine 

nonus 

10  decem 

ten 

decimus 

11  undecim 

eleven 

iindecimus 

12  duodecim 

twelve 

duodecimus 

13  tredecim 

thirteen 

tertius  decimus 

14  quattuordecim 

fourteen 

quartus  decimus 

15  quindecim 

fifteen 

qulntus  decimus 

16  sedecim 

sixteen 

sextus  decimus 

17  septendecim 

seventeen 

septimus  decimus 

18  duodeviginti 

eighteen 

duodevicesimus 

19  undeviginti 

nineteen 

undevicesimus 

20  viginti 

twenty 

(  vicesimus  ) 
(  vigesimus  > 

Q-J  viginti  unus 

\-twent  -one 

(  vicesimus  primus  ) 

unus  et  viginti  . 

)       >n  y~**' 

(  unus  et  vigesimus  ) 

/-  vicesimus  alter      ^ 

22  viginti  duo 

\twent   two 

J  alter  et  vicesimus  > 

duo  et  viginti 

\ 

(  duo  et  vicesimus  ) 

28  duodetriginta 

twenty-eight 

duodetricesimus 

undetriginta    ) 

twenty-nine 

undetrlcesimus 

viginti  novem 


NUMERALS. 


65 


with  examples  of  the  higher  numbers,  are  given  in  the 
following  table,  together  with  the  Roman  signs  for  them. 


DISTRIBUTIVES. 

ADVERBS. 

ROMAN  SIGNS. 

singull 

semel 

I. 

bin! 

bis 

II. 

term 

ter 

III. 

quaterm 

quater 

IIII  or  IV. 

quini 

qumquies 

V. 

sen! 

sexies 

VI. 

septeni 

septies 

VII. 

octoni 

octies 

VIII. 

noveni 

novies 

VIIII  or  IX. 

deni 

decies 

X. 

undem 

undecies 

XL 

duodem 

duodecies 

XII. 

terni  deni 

ter  decies 

XIII. 

quaterni  deni 

quater  decies 

XIIII  or  XIV. 

quini  deni 

(  quinquies  decies  ) 
(  quindecies            ) 

XV. 

seni  deni 

(  sexies  decies  ) 
(.  sedecies          ) 

XVI. 

septeni  deni 

septies  decies 

XVII. 

(  duodeviceni  ) 
(  octoni  deni  ) 

octies  decies 

XVIII. 

(undeviceni   > 
(  noveni  deni  ) 

novies  decies 

XVIIII  or  XIX. 

vicem 

vicies 

XX. 

viceni  singull 

(  vicies  semel      ) 
(  semel  et  vicies  ) 

XXI. 

viceni  bini 

(  vicies  bis       ) 
(  bis  et  vicies  ) 

XXII. 

duodetriceni 

duodetricies 

XXVIII. 

undetriceni 

undetricies 

XX  VIIII  or  XXI 

66 


INFLECTION. 


CARDINALS. 


30  triginta 


thirty 


40 
50 
60 
70 
80 
90 

99 

100 
101 

102 

200 
300 
400 

500 

600 

700 

800 

900 

1,000 

2,000 

100,000 

1,000,000 
2,000,000 
3,000,000 


ORDINALS. 

( tricesimus  ) 

(.  trigesimus  ) 
quadragesimus 
quinquagesimus 
sexagesimus 
septuagesimus 
octogesimus 
nonagesimus 


quadraginta  forty 

quinquaginta  fifty 

sexaginta  sixty 

septuaginta  seventy 

octoginta  eighty 
nonaginta 
undecentum      ) 
(nonaginta  no-  V- 
vem)              ) 

centum  one  hundred 

centum  et  unus  )  hundred  and 
centum  unus     >        one 

centum  et  duo  )  hundred  and 
centum  duo       )        two 

ducenti,  -ae,  -a  two  hundred 

trecenti,  -ae,  -a  three  hundred 
quadringenti, 

-ae,  -a  four  hundred 

quingenti,  -ae,  -a  five  hundred 

sescenti,  -ae,  -a  six  hundred 

septingenti,  -ae,  -a  seven  hundred    septingentesimus 

octingenti,  -ae,  -a  eight  hundred    octingentesimus 

nongenti,  -ae,  -a  nine  hundred 

mille  one  thousand 

duo  mllia  two  thousand 

centum  milia  one  hundred 

thousand 
decies  centena  (or 

centum)  milia  one  million 
vicies  centena  (or 

centum)  milia  two  million 
tricies  centum 

milia  three  million 


ninety-nine         undecentesimus 


centesimus 
( centesimus  et  unus 
(  centesimus  unus 
(  centesimus  et  alter 
(  centesimus  alter 

ducentesimus 

trecentesimus 

quadringentesimus 

quingentesimus 

sescentesimus 


nongentesimus 
mlllesimus 
bis  millesimus 


centies  millesimus 

decies  centies  mil- 
lesimus 

vicies  centies  mil- 
lesimus 

tricies  centies  mil- 
lesimus 


NUMERALS. 
DISTRIBUTIVES.  ADVERBS.  ROMAN  SIGNS. 


67 


tricem 

tricies 

XXX. 

quadragem 

quadragies 

XXXX  or  XL. 

qulnquageni 

qumquagies 

L. 

sexagem 

sexagies 

LX. 

septuageni 

septuagies 

LXX. 

octogeni 

octogies 

LXXX. 

nonagem 

nonagies 

LXXXX  or  XC. 

undecentenl 

undecenties 

1C. 

centeni 

centies 

C. 

centem  singuli-< 

centies  et  semel  ) 
centies  semel      ) 

CI. 

centeni  bin!      •< 

centies  et  bis  ) 

GIL 

centies  bis       ) 

ducem 

ducenties 

CC. 

treceni 

trecenties 

CCC. 

quadringem 

quadringenties 

CCCC  or  CD. 

quingem 

qumgenties 

D  or  10- 

sescem 

sescenties 

DC  or  IOC. 

septingem 

septingenties 

DCC  or  IOCC. 

octingeni 

octingenties 

DCCC  or  IOCCC. 

nongem 

nongenties 

DCCCCorlOCCCC. 

singula  milia 

millies 

M  or  CIO. 

bma  milia 

bis  millies 

MM  or  CIOCIO- 

CCCIOOO. 


decies  centies  milies  CCCCIOOOO- 


centena  milia      centies  milies 
decies  centena 

milia 
\icies    centena 

milia  vicies  centies  milies  CCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOO- 

tricies  centena  milia 

tricies  centies  milies  CCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOOCCCCIOOOO. 


68  INFLECTION. 

159.  The  cardinals  from  quattuor  to  centum,  also  mille, 
are   indeclinable.     The  cardinals   for  hundreds,  and  the 
distributives,  are  declined  like  the  plural  of  bonus.     The 
ordinals  are  declined  like  bonus  in  both  numbers,     fjnus, 
duo,  tres,  and  milia  (pi.)  are  also  declined. 

160.  Unus  has  been  declined  in  146.     Tres  and  milia 
are  declined  like  the  plural  of  regular  adjectives  of  the 
third  declension.     Duo  is  thus  declined :  — 

M.  F.          N. 

N.  &  V.    duo  duae  duo 

G.       duorum  duarum  duorum 

D.  &  Ab.   duobus  duabus  duobus 

Ac.       duos  or  duo  duas  duo 

a.  The  shorter  form  of  the  genitive,  duum,  is  used  especially 
in  compounds  like  duumviri,  and  when  joined  with  milimn. 

b.  Like  duo  is  declined  ambo,  both,  except  that  the  final  o  is 
long.     They  are  remnants  of  the  dual  number.     (See  86,  a.) 

161.  The  plural  of  unus  is  used  with  nouns  which  have 
no  singular  or  a  different  meaning  in  the  singular;  as, 
unae  nuptiae,  one  wedding ;  Una  castra,  one  camp.     To 
denote  more  than  one  with  such  nouns  the  distributives  * 
are  used  ;  as,  bma  castra,  two  camps. 

a.  The  plural  of  unus  is  also  used  with  nouns  denoting  seve- 
ral things  considered  as  one  whole  ;  as,  una  vestimenta,  one  suit 
of  clothes  ;  and  in  the  meaning  "  alone  "  or  "  the  same  ; "  as,  uni 
Ubii,  the  Ubii  alone  ;  urns  nwribus  vivere,  to  live  according  to 
the  same  habits  (as  some  one  else). 

b.  The  numbers  from  twelve  to  nineteen  are  sometimes  ex- 
pressed by  two  numbers,  the  greater  of  which  usually  precedes 
with  et ;  as,  decent  et  tres,  etc. ;  or  without  et ;  as,  decem  novem. 

c.  From  twenty  to  one  hundred  the  smaller  number  with  et 
is  put  first,  or  the  larger  number  without  et ;  as,  unus  et  vigintl 
or  vigintl  unus.     Ordinals,  however,  omit  et  when  the  smaller 
number  precedes  and  sometimes  take  it  when  the  larger  pre- 

*  Trim  is  used  for  terra,  in  such  cases. 


NUMERALS.  69 

cedes ;  as,  tertius  decimus^  and  decimus  tertius  or  decimus  et  ter- 
tius.  The  adverbs  may  also  take  et  when  the  larger  number 
precedes  ;  as,  vicies  et  ter  as  well  as  ter  et  vicies  and  vicies  ter. 

d.  Instead  of  primus  and  secundus,  prior  and  alter  are  used 
when  only  two  are  spoken  of.     Alter  is  otherwise  often  used  for 
secundus  /  and,  in  the  compound  numbers,  unus  and  alter  are 
often  used  for  primus  and  secundus  /  as,  unus  et  vicesimus, 
alter  et  trlgesimus. 

e.  Sixty-eight,  sixty-nine,  and  ninety-eight,  are  expressed   by 
addition  only ;  the  other  eights  and  nines  generally  by  subtrac- 
tion only,  except  that  twenty-eight,  twenty-nine,  and  thirty-nine, 
as  well  as  some  of    the  distributives  and  adverbs,  have  both 
forms.      Among   ordinals    seventy-eight,    seventy-nine,    eighty- 
eight,  and  eighty-nine  have  only  the  forms  by  addition. 

/.  Above  one  hundred  the  larger  number  precedes  with  or 
without  et ;  as,  centum  et  unus  or  centum  unus.  Et  is  never  used 
more  than  once,  and  then  after  the  first  number ;  as,  trecenti  et 
sexaginta  sex.  Numeral  adverbs  are  to  be  added  together 
when  the  larger  precedes,  but  multiplied  together  when  the 
smaller  precedes.  Thus,  while  centies  decies  means  a  hundred 
and  ten  times,  decies  centies  means  ten  times  a  hundred  times, 
i.  e.,  a  thousand  times. 

g.  Mille  is  generally  used  as  an  adjective,  but  in  the  nomina- 
tive and  accusative  it  also  occurs  as  a  noun ;  milia  is  a  noun, 
and  may  be  used  with  a  genitive.  Thus :  mille  homines  and 
duo  milia  hominum. 

h.  Thousands  are  expressed  by  prefixing  the  cardinal  num- 
bers to  milia,  millions  by  further  prefixing  a  numeral  adverb. 
Thus:  decem  milia  =  10,000. 

ducenta  milia  =  200,000. 

trwies   centum   milia  =  3,000,000    (i.  e.,   thirty   times 
100,000). 

i.  The  year  and  the  hour  are  expressed  by  ordinals.  Thus  : 
hora  septima,  at  the  seventh  hour ;  annus  quingentesimus  trl- 
cesimus  primus,  the  year  five  hundred  and  thirty-one. 

k.  Fractions  are  expressed  by  ordinals  with  pars,  a  part. 
Thus,  £  =  tertia  pars.  One  half  is  generally,  however,  expressed 


70  INFLECTION. 

by  dlmidia  pars,  or  dlmidium  and  a  genitive.  Also,  fractions 
whose  numerator  is  one  less  than  the  denominator  are  ex- 
pressed by  cardinals  with  paries.  Thus :  f  =  duae  paries,  f  = 
ires  paries,  etc. 

NOTE.  For  various  derivative  adjectives  expressing  numerical  relations 
see  286. 

162.  (1.)  The  Romans  represented  numbers  by  letters ; 
as,  1  =  1,  V  =  5,  X  =  10. 

NOTE.  In  several  cases  these  letters  grew  out  of  early  forms  discarded 
from  the  alphabet  as  we  have  it.  Thus,  the  old  aspirates,  0>  ®?  V ,  were 
used  for  100,  1000,  and  50  respectively,  and  developed  into  C ,  CD,  and  _L. 
Then  five  hundred  (half  one  thousand)  was  denoted  by  I).  For  these  were 
then  substituted  C,  M,  L,  D ;  but  for  M  and  D,  CIO  and  ID  are  often 
written. 

(2.)  When  a  letter  is  repeated,  the  number  is  equal  to 
the  value  of  the  letter  multiplied  by  the  number  of  times 
it  occurs.  Thus,  II  =  2  x  1,  or  2 ;  XXX  =  10x3,  or  30  ; 
CCCC  =  100  x  4,  or  400.  V  and  L  are  not  thus  repeated. 
(3.)  When  a  letter  of  smaller  value  is  placed  before 
one  of  larger  value,  its  value  is  subtracted  from  the  larger 
value  ;  placed  after,  it  is  added  to  the  larger  value ;  as :  — 

IV     four,        V    five,  VI     six. 

IX    nine,        X   ten,  XI    eleven. 

XL    forty,       L    fifty,  LX   sixty. 

XC    ninety,    C     hundred,     CX   hundred  and  ten. 

a.  Annexing  0  to  10  multiplies  by  ten.     Thus  :  — 

10  =  500  ;  100  =  5,000 ;  1000  =  50,000. 

b.  Prefixing  C  and  annexing  0  to  CIO  also  multiplies  by  ten. 
Thus :  — 

CIO -1000;  CCIOO  =  10,000 ;  CCCIOOO  =  100,000. 

c.  Hundreds    of    thousands    are    represented    by  repeating 
CCCIOOO.     Thus :  — 

CCCIOOOCCCIOOOCCCIOOO  -  300,000. 

d.  Sometimes  thousands  are  expressed  by  a  straight  line  over 
the  numeral  letters.     Thus  :  — 

X  =  10,000;  XL =40,000. 


COMPARISON   OF  ADJECTIVES.  71 

COMPARISON  OF  ADJECTIVES  (Comparatio). 

163.  (1.)  The  COMPARISON  of  an  adjective  is  the  change 
of  its  form  to  express  its  quality  in  different  degrees. 

(2.)  There  are  three  degrees  of  comparison,  the  POSI- 
TIVE (gradus  positwus),  the  COMPARATIVE  (gradus  com- 
paratlvus),  and  the  SUPERLATIVE  (gradus  superlatwus). 

164.  (1.)  The  POSITIVE  simply  denotes  a  quality,  with- 
out reference  to  other  degrees  of  the  same  quality;  as, 
altus,  high ;  mitis,  mild. 

(2.)  The  COMPARATIVE  denotes  that  a  quality  exists  in 
one  of  two  instances  to  a  greater  degree  than  in  the  other ; 
as,  altior,  higher;  mitior,  milder. 

(3.)  The  SUPERLATIVE  denotes  that  a  quality  exists  in 
one  of  several  (or  all  possible)  instances  to  a  greater  de- 
gree than  in  any  other ;  as,  altissimus,  highest ;  mltissi- 
mus,  mildest. 

a.  The  comparative   is  also  used  elliptically  where  we   use 
"too"  or  "rather;"  as,  vlvit  liberius,  he  lives  too  freely  or 
rather  freely. 

b.  The  superlative  often  indicates  a  high  degree  of  a  quality 
without  direct  comparison  with  other  objects  ;  as,  amlcus  caris- 
simus,  a  very  dear  friend. 

c.  The  superlative  with  quam  denotes  that  the  quality  exists 
in  the  highest  possible  degree ;  as,  quam  maximus,  as  great  as 
possible. 

d.  Degrees  of  a  quality  less  than  the  positive  may  be  denoted 
by  minus,  less,  and  minime,  least,  prefixed  to  the  positive,  as  in 
English. 

165.  The  comparative  is  formed  by  adding  -ior  (m.  and 
f.),  -ius  (n.),  to  the  stem  of  an  adjective ;  in  the  case  of 
the  vowel  stems  the  stem  vowel  is  dropped.     The  super- 
lative  is  formed  by  adding  in  the  same  way  -issimus, 
-issima,  -issimum.     Thus  :  — 


72  INFLECTION. 


Positive 

altus 

Stem 

alto- 

Comparative 

altior 

Superlative 

altissimus 

mltis 

miti- 

mitior 

mitissimus 

felix 

felio- 

felicior 

felicissimus 

Irregular  Comparison. 

166.  Adjectives  in  -er  form  the  comparative  regularly, 
but  add  -rimus  to  the  positive  to  form  the  superlative. 
Thus :  — 

acer  acri-  acrior  acerrimus 

a.  So  vetus  has  as  superlative  veterrimus. 

167.  Six  adjectives  in  -lis  form  their  superlative  by 
adding    -limus    to   the    stem   without  the   stem   vowel. 
Thus  :  — 

facilis,  easy  facilior  f acillimus 

difficilis,  hard  difficilior  difficilliinus 

gracilis,  slender          gracilior  gracillimus 

humilis,  low  humilior  humillimus 

similis,  like  similior  simillimus 

dissimilis,  unlike       dissimilior  dissimillimus 

a.  Imbecillus  (-is)  has  also  sometimes  iinbecilliinus. 

168.  (1.)  Five  adjectives  in  -fieus  (cf.  facio)   derive 
their  comparatives  and  superlatives  from  supposed  forms 
in  -ficens.     Thus  :  — 

beneficus,  kind      beneficentior      beneficentissimus 

a.  So  honorificus,  honorable,  magnificus,  splendid,  munificus, 
liberal,  and  maleficus,  hurtful,  except  that  maleficus  has  no 
comparative. 

(2.)  So  adjectives  in  -dicens  (from  dlco)  and  -volens 
(from  vo/o),  though  compared  regularly,  have  more  com- 
monly a  positive  form  in  -dicus  and  -volus.     Thus  :  — 
maledicus  (maledl- 

cens),  slanderous  maledicentior  maledlcentissimus 
benevolus  (benevo- 

lens),  well-wishing     benevolentior    benevolentissimus 


DEFECTIVE  COMPARISON.  73 

169.  The  following  adjectives  show  various  irregulari- 
ties of  comparison  :  — 

bonus,  good  melior  optimus 

malus,  bad  peior  pessimus 

magnus,  great  maior  maximus 

parvus,  small  minor  minimus 

multus,  much  plus  *  plurimus 

dexter,  right,  skillful  dexterior  dextimus 

nequam,  worthless  nequior  nequissimus 

frugi,  worthy  frugalior  frugalissimus 

NOTE.  The  superlative  suffix  mo-  seems  to  have  been  the  earliest. 
This  was  then  combined  with  the  suffix  to-,  so-  (see  255),  making 
-tumus,  -sumus  (-timus,  -simus),  which  are  found  assimilated  as 
-limus,  -rimus.  (See  above,  166,  167).  The  common  ending-  -issimus 
either  grew  from  adding  -simus  to  comparatives,  or  was  formed  in  some 
way  after  the  pattern  of  the  earlier  ending  -mus.  See  Iwan  Miiller,  Hand- 
buck  der  Altertumswiss.,  ii.,  B.,  p.  220. 

Defective  Comparison. 

170.  (1.)  The  following  adjectives  are  formed   from 
stems  of  prepositions,  and  are  seldom  or  never  used  in 
the  positive  :  — 

cis,  citra  [citerj  citerior,  hither  citimus 

de  deterior,  worse  deterrimus 

in,  intra  interior,  inner  intimus 

prae,  prd  prior,  former  primus 

prope  propior,  nearer  proximus 

ultra  [ulter]  ulterior,  farther  ultimus 

(2.)  Four  others  are  used,  in  many  forms  of  the  posi- 
tives, though  not  classical  in  the  nominative  singular 
masculine  ;  namely :  — 

ex,  extra       fexterus  I  (exter)         exterior,  outer 

I  extimus 

infra  [mferus]  (infer)  inferior,  inner  j mflmus 

L .  (  imus 

post  [posterus]  posterior,  hinder          i  Postremus 

(  postumus 

super,  supra  [superus]  superior,  upper 

/  sximmus 

*  Only  neuter  in  singular.     (See  153.) 


74  INFLECTION. 

(3.)  The  following  two  have  no  positive  :  — 
Scior,  swifter  ocissimus 

potior,  preferable  potissimus 

171.  The  following  adjectives  have  no  comparative  :  — 
bellus,  fine.  invitus,  unwilling. 
caesius,  bluish  gray.  novos,  new. 

fcdsus,  false.  plus,  filial. 

fldus,  faithful.  sacer,  sacred. 

inclutus,  renowned.  vafer,  crafty. 

invictus,  invincible.  vetus,  old. 

172.  (1.)  The  following  have  no  superlative  :  — 
adidescens,  young.  pronus,  bending  forward. 
agrestis,  rustic.  proplnquus,  near. 
alacer,  lively.  salutaris,  salutary. 
caecus,  blind.  satur,  full. 
diuturnus,  lasting.  segnis,  slow. 

exilis,  thin.  silvestris,  woody. 

Inflnltus,  unlimited.  sinister,  left. 

ingens,  great.  supinus,  lying  on  the  back. 

ieiiinus,  fasting.  surdus,  deaf. 

longlnquus,  distant.  tempestivos,  seasonable. 

opimus,  rich.  teres,  round. 

procttvis,  sloping.  vwinus,  neighboring. 

With  many  in  -alls,  -ills,  -ills,  and  -bills,  and  a  few  other  less 
common  adjectives. 

(2.)  Tuvenis,  young,  compar.  iunior,  and  senex,  old, 
compar.  senior,  have  the  superlative  supplied  by  minimus 
natu  and  maximus  natu,  respectively. 

173.  The   comparative   and   superlative   may  also  be 
formed  by  prefixing  to  the  positive  the  adverbs  magis, 
more,  and  maxime,  most,  as  in  English.     Thus :  idoneus, 
fit,  magis  idoneus,  mdxime  idoneus. 

a.  This  method  of  comparison  is  common  with  adjectives 
ending  in  -icus,  -idus-,  -ulus,  -undus,  -imus,  -inus,  -orus, 
-ivos,  -us  pure  (except  -uus),  and  some  others. 


COMPARISON   OF   ADVEKBS.  75 

COMPARISON  OF  ADVERBS. 

174.  Adverbs  are  formed  from  adjectives  of  the  first 
and  second  declension  generally  by  substituting  e  for  the 
stem  vowel ;  from  adjectives  of  the  third  declension,  and 
occasionally  from  the  others,  by  adding  -ter  to  the  stem, 
before  which  a  and  o  are  weakened  to  i.     Thus :  durus, 
diire  ;  acer,  dcriter  ;  firmus,firmiter.* 

a.  The  final  -e  is  short  in  bene,  well ;  male,  ill ;  mferne,  be- 
low ;  superne,  above  ;  and  saepe,  often.     (Cf.  46,  a,  2.) 

b.  Stems  in  t-  retain,  of  course,  only  one  t  in  the  adverb ;  as, 
prudens,  prudenter  ;  sollers,  sollerter. 

Auddx  has  audcicter,  and  less  commonly  audaciter. 

c.  Facilis,  easy,  has  facile  f/  difficilis,  hard,  difficulter ;  and 
riequam,  worthless,  nequiter. 

175.  Only  the  adverbs  thus  formed  from  adjectives  are 
as  a  rule  compared.     The  comparative  is  the  neuter  ac- 
cusative singular  of  the  comparative  of  the  adjective ;  the 
superlative  is  the  superlative  of  the  adjective  with  e  sub- 
stituted for  the  stem  vowel.     If  the  adjective  is  irregular 
the  adverb  shows  similar  irregularity.     Thus :  — 

dure,  hard  durius  durissime 

acriter,  sharply  acrius  acerrime 

audacter,  boldly  audacius          audacissime 

So  also  male,  ill  peius  pessime 

parve,  little         minus  minime 

aperte,  openly     magis  aperte  maxime  aperte,  etc. 

176.  A  few  adverbs  thus  compared  have  no  adjectives 
in  use.     Thus  :  — 

diu,  long  diutius  diutissime 

saepe,  often  saepius  saepissime 

*  These  adjectives  of  the  second  declension  generally  also  have  adverbs 
in  -6  ;  as,  flrme  ;  but  alius  and  violentus  have  only  aliter  and  violenter. 
t  Really  neuter  accusative  of  the  adjective.     (Cf .  557,  a,  note.) 


76  INFLECTION. 

a.  Two  slightly  irregular  forms  are  — 
bene,  well  (from  bonus)  melius  optime 

magis  (comp.),  more  (from  magnus)  maxime 

NOTE.     Other  adverbs  are  not   compared,  and  will  be  treated  later. 
(See  187,  292,  293,  and  557.) 

PEONOUNS. 

177.  Pronouns  include  the  following  classes :  — 

(1.)  PERSONALS  (pronomina personalia)  :  as,  ego,  I; 
tu,  thou ;  including  the  REFLEXIVE  (reflexivum),  sul,  of 
himself,  etc. 

(2.)  DEMONSTRATIVES  (demonstrative^) :  as,  w,  he, 
that ;  hlc,  this. 

(3.)  INTENSIVES  (intensiva)  :  as,  ipse,  self ;  Idem,  the 
same. 

(4.)  EELATIVES  (relatlva) :  as,  qui,  who. 

(5.)  INTERROGATIVES  (interrogatlva)  :  as,  quis,  who  ? 

(6.)  INDEFINITES  (indefmlta) :  as,  cdiquis,  some  one 
or  other ;  quldam,  some  (particular)  one. 

(7.)  POSSESSIVES  (possessiva)  :  as,  meus,  my ;  cuius, 
whose  ? 

(8.)  PATRIALS  (patrialia)  :  as,  nostras,  of  our  coun- 
try. 

PERSONALS. 

178.  The  personal  pronouns  are  thus  declined :  — 

Singular. 

Norn.  egS,  I.  tu,  thou,  you. 

Gen.  mei,  of  me.  tui,  of  thee,  you. 

Dat.  mini,  to  me.  tibl,  to  thee,  you. 

Ace.  me,  me.  te,  thee,  you. 

Voc.  tu,  thou,  you. 

Abl.  me,  with  or  by  me.  te.  with  or  by  thee,  you. 


RSITY 


PRONOUNS.  —  PERSONALS.  —  DEMONSTRATIVES.       77 

Plural. 

Nom.  nos,  we.  vos,  ye,  you. 

Gen.    nostrum,*  or  nostri,  vestrum,  or  vestri, 

of  us.  of  you. 

Dat.     nobls,  to  us.  vobis,  to  you. 

Ace.     nos,  us.  vos,  you. 

Voc.     vos,  ye,  you. 

Abl.     nobls,  with  or  by  us.  vobis,  with  or  by  you. 

179.  The  reflexive  pronoun  is  the  same  in  both  num- 
bers and  in  all  genders.     Thus :  — 

Nom.  

Gen.  sui,  of  himself,  herself,  itself,  themselves. 

Dat.  sibl,  to  himself,  etc. 

Ace.  se  (sese),  himself,  etc. 

Voc.  

Abl.  se  (sese),  with  or  by  himself,  etc. 

a.  The  personal  pronoun  of  the  third  person  when  not  reflex- 
ive is  supplied  by  the  demonstratives,  is,  ea,  id,  and  (more  em- 
phatic) hie,  haec,  hoc,  or  ille,  ilia,  illud.     (See  18O,  below.) 

b.  All  the  forms  of  the  personal  and  reflexive  pronouns,  ex- 
cept til  and  the  plural  genitives,  sometimes  add  the  suffix  -met 
for  greater  emphasis.     Thus  :  egSmet,  vosmet,  semet. 

c.  Tu  has  an  emphatic  form  tilte,  and  in  old  Latin  tete  is 
used  as  more  emphatic  for  te. 

d.  Mi  is  old  and  poetic  for  mihi.     Mepte  and  tried  for  me, 
ted  for  te,  mis  for  mei,  and  tis  for  tm,  occur  in  the  comic  poets. 

NOTE.  The  personal  and  reflexive  pronouns,  with  the  intensive  ipse, 
are  the  only  pronouns  in  the  strict  sense  (i.  e.,  words  used  instead  of  nouns). 
The  possessives  and  patrials  are  really  adjectives,  and  the  others  are  used 
as  adjectives  as  well  as  pronouns. 

DEMONSTRATIVES. 

180.  The  demonstrative  pronouns  are  thus  declined :  — 

*  Nostrum  and  vestrum  are  mostly  confined  to  the  partitive  use  (see 
Syntax,  354)  ;  nostri  and  vestri  are  used  for  other  relations. 


78 


J 

INFLECTION. 

is,  he,  that. 

Singular. 

M. 

F. 

Nom. 

is 

ea 

Gen. 

eius 

eius 

Dat. 

el 

el 

Ace. 

eum 

earn 

Abl. 

eo 

ea 

Plural. 

Nom. 

el  (ii) 

eae 

Gen. 

eorum 

earum 

D.  &A. 

els  (us) 

els  (iis) 

Ace. 

60S 

eas 

hie,  this. 

Singular. 

Nom. 

hie 

haec 

Gen. 

huius 

huius 

Dat. 

huic 

huic 

Ace. 

hunc 

hauc 

Abl. 

h5c 

hac 

Plural. 

Nom. 

hi 

hae 

Gen. 

horum 

harum 

D.  &  A. 

his 

his 

Ace. 

hos 

has 

iste,  this,  that. 

Singular. 

Nom. 

iste 

ista 

Gen. 

istlus 

istlus 

Dat. 

isti 

isti 

Ace. 

istum 

istam 

Abl. 

ist5 

ista 

id 

eius 

el 

id 

eo 


ea 

eorum 
els  (iis) 
ea 


hoc 

huius 

huic 

h6c 

hoc 


haec 
horum 
his 
haec 


istud 

istius 

isti 

istud 

isto 


Nom. 

Gen.  istorum 

D.  &  A.  istis 

Ace.  istos 


PRONOUNS.  —  DEMONSTRATIVES. 

Plural. 
isti  istae 


79 


istarum 
istis 

istas 


ista 

istorum 
istis 
ista 


ille,  that. 

Singular. 

Nom. 

ille 

ilia 

Gen. 

illius 

illius 

Dat. 

mi 

ill! 

Ace. 

ilium 

illam 

Abl. 

illo 

ilia 

Plural. 


Nom.  ill! 

Gen.  illorum 

D.  &  A.  iUis 

Ace.  illos 


niae 
illarum 
mis 
illas 


iUud 

illius 

illi 

illud 

illo 


ilia 

illorum 
illls 
iUa 


a.  The  old  form  of  ille  was  ollus,  and  some  cases  from  that 
form  occur.     Genitives  and  datives  after  the  analogy  of  the 
regular  forms  in  the  first  and  second  declensions  are  also  found ; 
as,  illae  for  illius  and  illi,  eae  for  el,  hae  for  hide,  etc.     libus, 
ibus,  occur  for  els  ;  and,  as  fern.,  eabus.   In  early  Latin  are  found 
as  nominative  plural,  eeis,  ieis,  eis,  I,  heis,  his,  heisce,  hlsce. 

b.  The  interjection  ecce,  lo  !  is  compounded  with  ille,  iste,  and 
is  in   colloquial  language ;   producing  eccillud,  eccistam,  ecca, 
eccum,  eccos,  etc. 

c.  An  intensive  suffix  -ce  is  added  to  various  forms  of  the 
demonstratives,  producing  forms  like  huiusce,  hance,  horunce, 
illace,  istosce,  ilsce. 

d.  When  the  interrogative  ne  is  attached  we  have  forms  like 
hlcine,  haecine,  illaecine,  etc. 

e.  Sometimes  the  e  from  -ce  is  dropped,  producing  from  iste 
the  following  forms  :  — 


80  INFLECTION. 

Singular.  Plural. 

M.                  F.                  K.  M.                 F.               N. 

N.     istlc        istaec     istic  or  istuc    istaec    


Ac.  istunc    istanc    istoc  or  istuc    istaec 

Ab.  istoc      istac       ist5c 

Similar  forms  occur  for  ille  ;  and  Jwrunc,  harunc  from  hie. 

f.  The  genitive  modi  is  combined  with  the  genitive  of  the 
demonstratives  to  indicate  of  this  or  that  kind.  Thus :  huius- 
modi  or  huiuscemodi,  of  this  kind ;  eiusmodi,  of  such  a  kind, 
that  kind,  etc. 

NOTE.  It  will  be  seen  that  ille  and  iste  are  alike  in  their  declensions, 
that  Afc  differs  from  them  only  in  having  the  C  of  the  suffix  -ce  in  certain 
forms,  and  that  is  differs  only  in  the  nominative  singular  masculine  and 
neuter,  and  the  accusative  singular  neuter. 

Uses  of  the  Demonstratives. 

181.  (1.)  ffic,  this,  is  used  to  denote  that  which  is  near 
the  speaker  in  thought,  space,  or  time,  or  in  a  written  or 
spoken  sentence,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  demonstra- 
tive of  the  first  person. 

(2.)  Hie,  that,  is  used  to  denote  that  which  is  far  from 
the  speaker,  and  is  sometimes  called  the  demonstrative  of 
the  third  person. 

(3.)  Iste,  this,  that,  denotes  that  which  is  too  far  from 
the  speaker  for  hie  and  too  near  for  ille,  often  marking 
that  which  is  near,  or,  which  concerns,  the  person  addressed. 
It  is  therefore  sometimes  called  the  demonstrative  of  the 
second  person.  It  frequently  refers  to  a  point  under  dis- 
cussion between  two  persons,  or  to  an  opponent  in  argu- 
ment, especially  in  law  matters,  and  therefore  sometimes 
implies  contempt. 

(4.)  When  hie  and  ille  are  used  to  refer  to  two  things 
in  the  same  passage,  hie  more  commonly  refers  to  the 
thing  last  mentioned,  and  ille  to  the  one  first  mentioned ; 
but  if  the  one  first  mentioned  is  more  important  (i.  e., 
nearer  the  thought  of  the  speaker),  hie  refers  to  that, 
and  ille  refers  to  the  other. 


PRONOUNS.  —  DEMONSTRATIVES.  —  INTENSIVES.       81 

(5.)  The  following  examples  will  make  these  distinc- 
tions clearer :  — 

Diutius  in  hac  vitci  esse  non  possum,  I  cannot  stay  longer  in 
this  life. 

Haec  nostra  studio, ;  ista  tua  studia,  these  (are)  our  pur- 
suits, those  your  pursuits. 

Ego  enim  istuc  ipsum  vereor  ne  malum  sit,  non  died  carere 
sensu  sed  carendum  esse,  for  I  am  afraid  that  this  very  thing  is 
an  evil ;  I  do  not  mean  the  being  without  sensation  itself  but 
the  necessity  of  being  so  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  12,  26). 

a.  Q.  Catulus,  non  antlquo  illo  more,  sed  hoc  nostro  eru- 
dltus,  Quintus  Catulus  trained  not  in  that  old  fashioned  style, 
but  in  this  of  ours. 

Ignavia,  corpus  hebetat,  labor  firmat ;  ilia  mdturat  senectu- 
tem,  hlc  longam  adulescentiam  reddit,  inactivity  dulls  the  phy- 
sical forces,  work  strengthens  them  ;  the  one  hastens  old  age,  the 
other  prolongs  youth. 

Melior  est  certa  pax  quam  sperata  victoria  ;  haec  in  tua, 
ilia  in  deorum  manu  est,  certain  peace  is  better  than  victory 
hoped  for ;  the  peace  is  in  your  hands,  the  victory  in  the  hands 
of  the  gods. 

For  the  special  uses  of  the  demonstratives  see  Syntax,  450. 

INTENSIVES. 

182.  The  intensive  pronouns  are  thus  declined  :  — 
ipse,  self. 

Singular. 

N. 

ipsum 

ipslus 

ipsi 

ipsum 

ipso 

ipsa 
ipsorum 
ipsis 
ipsa 


M. 

F. 

N.  &  V. 

ipse 

ipsa 

Gen. 

ipslus 

ipslus 

Dat. 

ipsi 

ipsi 

Ace. 

ipsum 

ipsam 

Abl. 

ipso 

ipsa 

Plural. 

N.&  V. 

ipsi 

ipsae 

Gen. 

ipsorum 

ipsarum 

D.  &  A. 

ipsis 

ipsis 

Ace. 

ipsos 

ipsas 

82  INFLECTION. 

idem,  the  same. 
Singular. 

N.  &  V.  idem  eadem  idem 

Gen.  eiusdem  eiusdem  eiusdem 

Dat  eldem  eldem  eldem 

Ace.  eundem  eandem  idem 

Abl.  e5dem  eadem  eodem 

Plural. 

N.  &  V.  eldem  (iidem)  eaedem  eadem 

Gen.         eSrundem  earundem  eorundem 

D.  &  A.  eisdem  elsdem  eisdem 

(ilsdem)  (iisdem)  (iisdem) 

Ace.         eosdem  easdem  eadem 

a.  Isdem  and  idem  occur  as  nominative  plural  masculine, 
and  other  rare  forms  are  occasionally  met.  See  Buecheler's 
Grundriss. 

NOTE.  It  will  be  seen  that  ipse  is  declined  like  iste  and  ille  except  in 
the  nominative  and  accusative  singular  neuter,  and  in  having  a  vocative. 
Idem  is  formed  from  is  with  the  demonstrative  suffix  -dem. 

RELATIVES,  INTERROGATIVES,  AND  INDEFINITES. 

183.  The  relative  qui,  who,  the  interrogative  quis  {quV), 
who,  and  the  indefinite  quis  {qui),  any  one,  are  formed 
from  the  same  stem,  and  most  of  their  forms  are  the 
same.     The  indefinite  quis  occurs  chiefly  with  the  particles 
si,  nisi,  ne,  num  ;  otherwise  the  compound  aliquis  takes 
its  place. 

184.  The  relative  qui,  the  interrogative  quis,  and  the 
indefinite  aliquis  are  thus  declined  :  — 

qui,  who.  quis,  who  ? 

Singular. 

M.  F.  N.  M.  F.  N. 

Nom.  qui  quae  quod  quis  (qui)  quae  quid  (quod) 

Gen.    cuius         cuius          cuius  cuius  cuius  cuius 

Dat.    cui  cui  cui  cui  cui  cui 

Ace.    quern        quam         quod  quern  quaxn  quid  (quod) 

Abl.    quo  (qui)  qua  (qui)  quo  (qui)  quo  (qui)  qua  (qui)  quo  (qui) 


RELATIVES,  INTERROGATIVES,  AND  INDEFINITES.      83 

Plural. 


M. 

P. 

N. 

Nom. 

qul 

quae 

quae 

Gen. 

quorum 

quorum 

quorum 

D.  &A. 

quibus 

quibus 

quibus 

Ace. 

quos 

quas 

quae 

a.  The  indefinite  quis  is  declined  just  like  the  interrogative. 

aliquis,  any,  some. 

Singular. 

M.  F.  N. 

Nom.       aliquis  (aliqui)  aliqua  aliquid  (aliquod) 

Gen.        alicuius  alicuius  alicuius 

Dat.        alicui  alicui  alicui 

Ace.        aliquem  aliquam  aliquid  (aliquod) 

Abl.        aliquo  aliqua  aliquo 

Plural. 

Nom.       aliqui  aliquae  aliqua 

Gen.        aliquSrum  aliquarum  aliquorum 

D.  &  A.  aliquibus  aliquibus  aliquibus 

Ace.         aliquos  aliquas  aliqua 

b.  In  the  interrogative  and  indefinite  pronouns  the  forms  quis, 
quid,  aliquis,  aliquid,  are  used  substantively,  the  forms  qm, 
quod,  aliqui,  aliquod,  adjectively. 

c.  The  ablative  form  qul  is  also  occasionally  found  as  a  plural. 
Its  chief  use  is  as  an  ablative  of  manner  (see  41O),  meaning 
"  how  ?  "  or  combined  with  cum  ;  as,  quicum,  with  whom. 

d.  Old  forms  for  the  dative  and  ablative  plural  are  queis  and 
quis. 

e.  Quis  is  sometimes  found  as  a  feminine  in  the  comic  writers, 
and  even  as  a  neuter.    So  the  compounds  —  quisque,  each ;  quis- 
nam,  who  in  the  world ;  and  quisquam,  any  one,  are  found  as 
feminines. 

f.  When  two  only  are  referred  to,  uter  (see  145  and  146), 


84  INFLECTION. 

not  quis,  is  the  interrogative  used.     So  uterque  means  "  each  " 
(of  two),  quisque,  "  each  "  (of  several). 

NOTE.     It  will  be  noticed  that  the  above  three  pronouns  have  forms  with 
a-  stems,  with  o-  stems,  and  with  i-  stems. 

185.  There  are  two  compound  relative  pronouns,  qul- 
cumque  and  quisquis,  meaning  "  whoever."  Qmcumque 
is  declined  like  qul.  Quisquis  is  used  only  in  certain 
forms,  as  follows :  — 

Singular. 

M.  F.  v. 

Nom.  quisquis         (quisquis)  quidquid  (quicquid) 

Ace.    quemquem  quidquid  (quicquid) 

Abl.     quoquo  quaqua  quoquo 

Plural. 

Nom.  quiqui 

Dat.     quibusquibus 

a.  Modi  is  joined  to  quisquis,  as  to  the  demonstratives,  but 
in  an  old  form  of  the  genitive,  cuicuimodi,  of  whatever  kind. 

b.  Indefinite  interrogatives  are  formed  from  quis  by  various 
particles  ;  as,  ecquis,  numquis,  any  one  ?      Quisnam,  who,  pray  ? 
is  emphatic  for  quis.     These  words  are  common  only  in  certain 
cases,  and  are  often  written  as  two  words.     The  feminine  nomi- 
native singular  and  neuter  nominative   and   accusative  plural 
generally  end  in  qua,  not  quae. 

c.  So  various  quasi-compouiids  are  formed  from  the  indefinite 
quis ;    as,   slquis,   riequis,   often    written   separately ;    qullibet, 
qulvls,  quispiam,  quisquam,  quldam,  with  quisque,  each,  and 
unusquisque,  each  and  all.     They  are  all  declined  like  quis,  but 
quisquam  is  not  used  in  the  feminine  nor  in  the  plural,  and 
quispiam  has  in  the  plural  only  the  feminine  nominative  quae- 
piam.    A  form  unumquidquid  occurs  in  Plautus  and  Lucretius. 

d.  The  order  of  the  indefinite  pronouns  from  less  to  greater 
definiteness  is  as  follows :  — 


PRONOUNS.  —  POSSESSIVE8.  85 

quisquam,  any  one  whatever. 

quilibet,  ) 

__       }•  any  you  please. 
quivis,     } 

quis,  any. 

aliquis,  some  one  or  other,  any  one. 

quispiam,  some  one. 

quidam,  some  particular  one. 

NOTE.  Quo-  was  the  old  form  of  spelling  for  CU-  in  these  pronouns 
(cf.  59,  c),  so  that  we  find  in  inscriptions  and  in  Plautus  and  Terence  quoins 
(originally  trissyl.),  and  then  quoins  (dissyl.),  for  cuius,  quoi  for  cui,  quoivis 
for  cuivis,  etc. 

For  the  use  of  indefinite  pronouns,  see  Syntax,  454  ff. 

POSSESSIVES. 

186.  (1.)  Possess!  ves  are  formed  from  the  personal 
pronouns  (including  the  reflexive),  and  from  the  inter- 
rogative (and  relative).  Thus:  meus,  my;  tuus,  thy, 
your  ;  suus,  his,  hers,  etc.  ;  noster,  our  ;  vester,  your  ; 
cuius  (relative  and  interrogative),  whose. 

(2.)  They  are  declined  regularly,  meus,  mea,  meum, 
etc.  ;  noster,  nostra,  nostrum,  etc.  :  except  that  the  voca- 
tive singular  masculine  of  meus  is  generally  mi  (other- 
wise meus  like  nominative)  ;  the  others  have  no  vocative. 

a.   Cuius  is  used  only  in  a  few  forms,  as  follows  :  — 


Sing. 

Plural 

M. 

F. 

N. 

F. 

Nom. 

cuius 

cuia 

cuium 

cuiae 

Ace. 

cuium 

cuiam 



cuias 

AW 

rvii  1  5. 

b.  The  suffixes  -met  and  (chiefly  in  the  ablative)  -pte  are 
sometimes  annexed  to  the  possessives  to  give  them  emphasis. 
Thus  :  tulsmet,  meapte,  etc. 

NOTE.  Old  forms  of  the  genitive  plural  of  the  possessive  pronouns  in 
-urn  for  -orum  occur  in  comedy  ;  as,  meurn,  vostrum.  Sovos,  sova,  sovom, 
are  found  in  inscriptions,  for  SUMS,  sua,  suum.  The  older  spellings  of  cuius, 
-a,  -urn,  were  quoius,  -a,  -urn  (originally  trissyl.),  quoius,  -a,  -urn  (dissyl.) 
(cf.  185,  note). 


86 


INFLECTION. 


*  I  i  i  !  Hi 


PRONOUNS.  —  PATRIALS.  —  VERBS.  87 


PATKIALS. 

188.  The  patrials  are  formed  from  the  stems  of  the 
possessives  noster  and  cuius,  and   indicate   the  country 
to  which  one  belongs.     Thus :  nostras^  of  our  country ; 
cuias,  of  what  country  ? 

a.  They  are  declined  regularly  like  adjectives  of  one  ending : 
nostras,  nostratis,  etc.,  but  are  used  only  in  certain  forms,  as 
follows :  — 

Singular.  Plural. 

N.  nostras  cuias  (quoias)  nostrates     nostratia   cuiatea  (m.) 

G.  nostratis  cuiatis 

Ac.  cuiatem  (m.) 

Ab.  nostratibus 

Nostratis  and  cuiatis  also  occur  as  nominatives. 

NOTE.  A  form  vestrds,  of  your  country,  is  given  by  Priscian  and  other 
ancient  grammarians. 

VERBS. 

189.  Verbs  are  either  TRANSITIVE  (transitiva)  or  IN- 
TRANSITIVE (intransitwa).* 

190.  A  TRANSITIVE  verb  marks  an  action  as  directly 
applied  to  an  object ;   as,  videt  leonem,  he  SEES  the  lion. 

191.  An  INTRANSITIVE  verb  denotes  a  state  or  marks 
an  action  as  not  directly  applied  to  any  object ;  f  as,  sto, 
I  stand ;  dormit,  he  is  sleeping  ;  veniunt,  they  come. 

192.  To  verbs  belong  VOICE  (genusf),  MOOD  (modus), 
TENSE  (tempus),  PERSON  (persona),  and  NUMBER  (nu- 
merus). 

(        *  Scientifically,  we  should  not  speak  of  verbs  themselves  as  transitive  or 
intransitive,  but  of  transitive  and  intransitive  uses  of  a  verb. 

t  An  intransitive  verb  is  sometimes  accompanied  by  an  apparent  object, 
which  is,  however,  really  an  adverbial  modifier ;  as,  "  I  slept  (for)  three 
Aours." 

J  So  called  from  a  false  analogy  with  gender  in  nouns. 


88  INFLECTION. 

VOICE. 

193.  (1.)  VOICE  is  distinguished  as  ACTIVE  (actlvum) 
or  PASSIVE  (pas&vum). 

(2.)  The  ACTIVE  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acting. 
Thus  :  Caesar  Gallos  vlcit^  Caesar  conquered  the  Gauls. 

(3.)  The  PASSIVE  voice  represents  the  subject  as  acted 
upon.  Thus :  Galli  a  Caesare  victl  sunt,  the  Gauls 
were  conquered  by  Caesar. 

a.  In  some  languages  there  is  also  a  special  form  to  represent 
the  subject  as  acting  upon  itself.     This  is  called  a  MIDDLE  voice. 
The  Latin  passive  seems  to  have  been  at  first  of  this  kind,  and 
a  few  instances  of  the  use  survived  in  classical  times.     Thus  : 
Androgei  galeam  clipeique  Inslgne  decorum  induitur,  he  puts 
on  the  helmet  of  Androgeus    and  his  beautifully  ornamented 
shield  (Verg.,  Ae.,  ii.,  392). 

b.  The  place  of  the  middle  voice  is  generally  supplied,  how- 
ever, by  the  active  with  a  reflexive  pronoun.     Thus :  pomis  se 
arbos  induit,  the  tree  clothes  itself  with  fruit  (see  Verg.,  G.,  iv., 
143) ;   quocumque  te  animo   et  cdgitcitwne  converter^  (future 
perfect),  whithersoever  you  turn  in  mind  and  thought  (Cic.,  de 
Or.,  i.,  2,  6). 

194.  Intransitive  verbs  have  as  such  only  the  active 
voice.     In  Latin,  however,  they  may  be  used  impersonally 
in  the  passive.     (See  318,  3,  and  387.) 

195.  Some  verbs,  having  the  form  of  the  passive,  have 
the  meaning  of  the  active.     They  are  called  DEPONENTS 
(depdnentia) .*     Thus:  sequor,  I  follow;  morior,  I  die. 

a.  The  deponents  are  really  remnants  of  the  middle  voice,  as 
may  be  seen  by  the  etymological  meaning  of  many  of  them ;  as, 
recordor,  I  remind  myself  (hence  "remember"). 

196.  Four  verbs  have  the  active  form  in  the  tenses 
from  the  present  stem,  and  the  passive  form  in  their  other 

*  From  depend,  lay  aside,  because  they  have  laid  aside  the  active  form 
and  the  passive  meaning. 


VOICE.  —  MOOD.  89 

parts,  but  all  with  active  meaning.     They  are  called  SEMI- 
DEPONENTS  (semi-deponentia). 

a.  They  are  :  audeo,  dare  ;  fido,  trust  (with  its  compounds)  ; 
gaudeo,  am  glad  ;  and  soled,  am  wont. 

MOOD. 

197.  There  are  three  MOODS  :  the  INDICATIVE  (indica- 
twus'),  the  SUBJUNCTIVE  (subiunctwus),  and  the  IMPERA- 
TIVE (imperatlvus). 

NOTE.  The  infinitive  is  also  often  reckoned  among  the  moods,  but  it  is 
really  a  verbal  noun,  and  according  to  the  best  usage  at  present  is  treated 
with  the  other  noun  parts  of  the  verb.  (See  202  and  203.) 

198.  (1.)  The  INDICATIVE  is  used  to  speak  of  things  as 
they  are,  to  assert,  deny,  or  question  a  fact.     Thus :  venio, 
I  come  ;  audlsne,  do  you  hear  ? 

(2.)  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  is  used  to  speak  of  things  as 
they  seem  in  the  mind,  to  represent  ideas  or  notions.  Thus 
the  subjunctive  expresses  a  purpose,  a  wish,  a  supposition, 
etc.  Examples  are  :  — 

Puerum  mlsit  qul  diceret,  he  sent  a  boy  to  say. 
Utinam  pater  adesset,  oh,  that  my  father  were  here. 
Faciat  ille  si  eum  roges,  he  would  do  it  if  you  should  ask  him. 

a.  The  difference  between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive 
is   perhaps   most   clearly  seen   in   the    expression   of    a  cause. 
Thus :  — 
Indicative :   Hoc  dixit  quod  verum  erat,  he  said  this  because  it 

was  true ; 
Subjunctive :  Hoc  dixit  quod  verum  esset,  he  said  this  because 

(as  he  thought)  it  was  true.* 

(3.)  The  IMPERATIVE  is  used  to  express  a  command  or 
exhortation.  Thus :  haec  nuntiate  regl  vestro,  tell  this  to 
your  king ;  ama  inimlcos  tuos,  love  your  enemies. 

*  The  pupil  should  be  cautioned  against  supposing  that  the  subjunctive 
implies  that  a  thing  is  not  a  fact.  It  expresses  only  as  an  idea  a  thing 
which  also  may  be  a  fact  or  may  not. 


90  INFLECTION. 

TEXSE. 

199.  There  are  six  TENSES:  the  PRESENT  (praesens), 
IMPERFECT  (imperfectum),  FUTURE  (futuruni),  PERFECT 
(perfection),   PLUPERFECT    (plusquamper/ectum),    and 
FUTURE  PERFECT  (futurum  exdctum). 

a.  The  Latin  tenses  correspond  in  general  to  the  English 
tenses  of  the  same  names,  but  are  used  more  strictly.    It  should 
be  noticed  also  that  the  Latin  imperfect  is  mostly  confined  to  the 
progressive  sense  (was  doing,  having,  etc.),  while  the  Latin  per- 
fect serves  generally  for  the  English  imperfect  as  well  as  per- 
fect. 

b.  When  the  Latin  perfect  corresponds  to  the  English  perfect 
it  is  called  the  PERFECT  DEFIXITE  or  PRESENT  PERFECT  ;  when 
it  corresponds  to  the  English  imperfect  it  is  called  the  HISTORI- 
CAL  PERFECT. 

200.  The  tenses  are  divided  into  — 

(1.)  PRIMARY  or  PRINCIPAL  tenses :  present,  perfect 
definite,  and  the  two  futures. 

(2.)  SECONDARY  or  HISTORICAL  tenses :  imperfect,  his- 
torical perfect,  and  pluperfect. 

a.  Only  the  indicative  has  all  six  tenses ;  the  subjunctive  has 
no  future ;  the  imperative  has  only  the  present  and  the  future, 
the  latter  expressing  the  command  more  gently. 

NUMBER  AND  PERSON. 

201.  There  are  two  NUMBERS,  SINGULAR  and  PLURAL, 
as  in  nouns,  -and  three  PERSONS,  the  FIRST  denoting  the 
speaker,  the  SECOND  denoting  the  person  spoken  to,  and 
the  THIRD  denoting  the  person  or  thing  spoken  of. 

a.  The  imperative  has  in  the  present  only  the  second  person, 
in  the  future  the  second  and  third  persons. 

NOUN  AND  ADJECTIVE  FORMS  OF  THE  VERB. 

202.  (1.)  The  three  moods  with  their  various  tenses, 


VERB.  —  NOUN.  AND  ADJECTIVE  FORMS.  91 

numbers,  and  persons,  form  what  is  called  the  FINITE 
VERB  (verbumflnitum). 

(2.)  The  verb  has  also  three  noun  forms  and  two  ad- 
jective forms,  as  follows  :  — 

a.  Noun  forms :    INFINITIVE  (jinflnitwus). 

GERUND  (gerundium). 
SUPINE  (supinum). 

b.  Adjective  forms :   PARTICIPLE  (participium). 

GERUNDIVE  (gerundwum) . 

NOTE.     These  five  parts  are  sometimes  classed  together  as  the  verbum 
infinitum. 

203.  (1.)  The  INFINITIVE  is  chiefly  used  as  a  neuter 
noun  in  the  nominative  or  accusative  singular.     Thus :  — 

Humanum  est  errare,  to  err  is  human. 

In  animo  habed  Romam  Ire,  I  intend  to  go  to  Rome. 

(2.)  The  infinitive  is  also  used  in  certain  special  con- 
structions (see  53O  ff.),  and  has  three  tenses,  present,  per- 
fect, and  future.  Thus  :  — 

Pres.  dlcere,  to  say. 

Perf.  dixisse,  to  have  said. 

Fut.    dicturus  esse,  to  be  on  the  point  of  saying. 

204.  The  GERUND  is  a  noun  of  the  second  declension 
(stem  ending  in  -ndo-),  used  only  in  the  oblique  cases  of 
the    singular.      The    infinitive    supplies    its   nominative. 
Thus :  - 

Venandi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  hunting ;  fessus  venand.5, 
weary  with  hunting. 

But :  salubre  est  venari,  hunting  is  healthful. 

205.  The  SUPINE  is  a  noun  of  the  fourth  declension 
(stem  ending  in  -tu-)  used  only  in  the  accusative  and  ab- 
lative singular.     Thus :  — 

Venio  rogatum,  I  come  to  ask  (for  asking). 
Difficile  intellectu,  hard  to  understand  (in  the  understand- 
ing of  it). 

For  the  syntax  of  the  supine  see  553  ff. 


92  INFLECTION. 

206.  There  are  three  PARTICIPLES;  the  PRESENT  AC- 
TIVE, the   FUTURE  ACTIVE,  and  the  PERFECT  PASSIVE. 
Thus:  — 

Pres.  Act.     dlcenSj  saying. 

Fut.  Act.       dicturus,  on  the  point  of  saying. 

Perf.  Pass,    dictus,  said  (having  been  said). 

a.  The  perfect  participle  of  deponent  verbs  generally  has  an 
active  meaning ;  as,  secutus,  having  followed.  So  also  tbe  per- 
fect participle  of  the  following  four  verbs :  — 

ceno,  dine ;  cenatm,  having  dined. 

iuro,  swear ;  iurdt-us,  having  sworn. 

poto,  drink  ;  potus,  having  drunk. 

prandeo,  breakfast ;  pransus,  having  breakfasted. 

207.  (1.)  The  GERUNDIVE  is  an  adjective  of  the  first 
and  second  declension  (having  the  same  stem  as  the  ge- 
rund).    Thus:  amctndus,  docendus. 

(2.)  Used  to  agree  with  a  subject  in  the  nominative  or 
accusative,  it  denotes  necessity  or  obligation.  Thus :  — 

Docendus  est  puer,  the  boy  must  be  taught. 

Vir  venerandus,  a  man  to  be  revered. 

Dixit  id  faciendum  esse,  he  said  it  must  be  done. 

(3.)  In  other  situations  the  idea  of  obligation  is  more 
hidden.  Thus :  — 

Ad  pdcem  petendam  venit,  he  came  to  ask  for  peace  (i.  e., 
with  regard  to  the  peace  to  be  asked  for). 

Urbis  condendae  consilium,  the  design  of  founding  a  city. 

a.  In  late  Latin  the  gerundive  became  a  future  passive 
participle.  Faciendus  would  then  mean  merely  "  on  the  point 
of  being  done." 

CONJUGATION. 
Tense-Stems. 

208.  Three   special   stems  —  the   PRESENT   stem,  the 
PERFECT  stem,  and  the  PERFECT  PARTICIPLE  stem  —  are 
distinguished  in  the  verb. 


CONJUGATION.  —  TENSE-STEMS.  93 

209.  From   the   PRESENT   stem   are   formed   in    both 
voices  the  present,  imperfect,  and  future  in  all  the  moods ; 
also  the  present  infinitive,  the  present  participle,  and  the 
gerund  and  gerundive. 

210.  From  the  PERFECT  stem  are  formed,  in  the  active 
voice   only,  the   perfect,   pluperfect,  and   future   perfect 
tenses,  and  the  perfect  infinitive. 

211.  From  the  PERFECT   PARTICIPLE   stem  is  formed 
the   perfect   participle   passive,  which  with  the  parts  of 
esse,  to  be,  forms  in  the  passive  voice  those  tenses  which 
in  the  active  are  formed  from  the  perfect  stem. 

a.  The  supine  has  a  (noun)  stem  of  its  own,  and  the  future 
participle  has  a  derivative  (adjective)  stem.    The  future  infinitive 
active  is  formed  by  the  future  participle  with  esse.     The  future 
infinitive  passive  is  formed  by  the  supine  with  Iri  (the  present 
infinitive  passive  of  ire,  to  go).* 

b.  The  supine  and  the  perfect  and  future  participles,  though 
not  connected  in  derivation,  have  a  mechanical  similarity  of 
basis  which  helps  to  fix  them  in  the  mind. 

Thus  :  — 

Perf.  Part.  Supine.  Fut.  Part. 

rectws  rectum  vecturus 

cast&?  casum  csisurus 

flexws  flexww  flexiZrws 

momtus  monitum  momturus 

amatws  amatom  amsiturus 

*  The  parts  here  mentioned,  together  with  the  perfect  participle  and  the 
tenses  formed  by  it,  have  been  commonly  grouped  together  and  derived 
from  a  so-called  supine  stem.  It  has  seemed  best  to  give  up  this  wholly 
unscientific  point  of  view,  but  not  to  depart  further  from  the  traditional 
explanation  of  the  verb  forms.  The  pupil  should  be  warned,  however, 
that  this  explanation  is  true  only  of  the  apparent  structure  of  the  verb  in 
its  developed  state  as  met  in  literature.  Many  of  the  tenses  which  seem 
to  belong  to  the  same  stem  have  in  reality  very  varied  origins.  For 
instance,  the  imperfect  subjunctive  probably  does  not  belong  to  the  present 
stem  at  all,  but  grew  from  the  same  form  as  the  perfects  in  -Si. 


94  INFLECTION. 

212.  The  following  table  shows  the  tenses  formed  from 
each  of  the  stems :  — 

PRESENT   STEM. 
ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Indicative       Pres.,   Imp.,  Future.         Pres.,   Imp.,  Future. 
Subjunctive         "  "  "  " 

Imperative  "  "  "  " 

Infinitive  "  " 

Participle  " 

Gerund.     Gerundive. 

PERFECT   STEM.  PERF.  PART.  STEM. 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Indicative  Per/.,  Plup.,  Fut.  Perf.  Per/.,  Plup.,  Fut.  Per/. 

Subjunctive        "           "  "  " 

Infinitive            "  " 

Participle  " 

FUTURE  PART,  with  esse  =  Future  Infin.  Active. 
SUPINE  "     iri  =      "         "       Passive. 

Personal  Endings. 

213.  The  FINITE  forms  of  the  verb  have  the  following 

PERSONAL   ENDINGS:*  — 

(1.)  INDICATIVE  (except  PERFECT)  and  SUBJTTN-CTIVE. 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Sing.  1st  Pers.  -m  or -r 

2d  Pers.  -s  -ris  (shortened  -re) 

3d  Pers.  -t  -tur 

Plur.  1st  Pers.  -mus  -mur 

2d  Pers.  -tis  -mini 

3d  Pers.  -nt  -ntur 

*  These  personal  endings  are  regarded  usually  as  remnants  of  the 
personal  pronoun  forms.  But  see  Brugmann  in  Handbuch  der  Altertums- 
wiss.,  ii.,  p.  72,  §  106. 


PERSONAL  ENDINGS.  —  CONJUGATION   OF  SUM.        95 

(2.)  PERFECT  INDICATIVE  ACTIVE.* 

Singular.  Plural. 

1st  Pers.    -mus 

2d  Pers.     -sti  -stis 

3d  Pers.     -t  -erunt  (shortened  -ere) 

(3.)  IMPERATIVE. 

PRESENT.  FUTURE. 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE.  ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

Sing.  2d  Pers.  -re  -to  -tor 

3d  Pers.  -t5  -tor 

Plur.  2d  Pers.  -te  -mini  -tote 

3d  Pers.  -nto  -ntor 

214.  The  ENDINGS  of  the  NOUN  and  ADJECTIVE  forms 
of  the  verb  are  as  follows :  — 

INFINITIVES.                                    PARTICIPLES. 
ACTIVE.                    PASSIVE.                 ACTIVE.          PASSIVE. 
Pres.  -re                                  -ri  (-1  in  3d  conj. )  t  -ns  (-ntis) 
Perf .  -isse                             -tus  (-a,  -urn)  esse  —                        -tus,  -a,  -um 
Fut.  -turus  (-a,  -um)  esse  -turn  iri  -turus,  -a,  -um 

GERUNDIVE  and  GERUND. 
-ndus,  -a,  -um,  etc. 

SUPINE. 
-turn,  -tu 

215.  sum,  I  am,  is  conjugated  as  follows :  — 
Pres.  Stem  es-  Perf.  Stem  fu- 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

sum,  I  am.  sumus,  we  are. 

es,  thou  art.  estis,  you  are. 

est,  he  is.  sunt,  they  are. 

*  The  apparently  different  endings  of  the  perfect  indicative  are  due  to 
the  mixed  origin  of  that  tense,  and  can  be  best  explained  elsewhere, 
t  Sometimes  -rier  (-ier). 


UNIVERSITY 


96  INFLECTION. 

IMPERFECT. 

eram,  I  was.  eramus,  we  were, 

eras,  thou  wast.  eratis,  you  were, 

erat,  he  was.  erant,  they  were. 

FUTURE. 

ero,  I  shall  be.  erimus,  we  shall  be. 

eris,  thou  wilt  be.  eritis,  you  will  be. 

erit,  he  will  be.  erunt,  they  will  be. 

PERFECT. 

fui,  I  have  been.  fuimus,  we  have  been, 

fuisti,  thou  hast  been.  fuistis,  you  have  been, 

fuit,  he  has  been.  fuerunt  (-re),  they  have  been. 

PLUPERFECT. 

fueram,  I  had  been.  fueramus,  we  had  been, 

fueras,  thou  hadst  been.  fueratis,  you  had  been, 

fuerat,  he  had  been.  fuerant,  they  had  been. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

fuero,  I  shall  have  been.  fuerimus,  we  shall  have  been, 

fueris,  thou  wilt  have  been.       fueritis.  you  will  have  been, 
fuerit,  he  will  have  been.  fuerint,  they  will  have  been. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT.  IMPERFECT. 

sim  simus  essem         essemus 

sis  sltis  esses  essetis 

sit  sint  esset  essent 

PERFECT.  PLUPERFECT. 

fuerim         fuerimus  fuissem      fuissemus 

fueris  fueritis  fuisses        fuissetis 

fuerit  fuerint  fuisset        fuissent 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT.  FUTURE. 

es,  be  thou.     este,  be  ye.  est5  estate 

esta  suntd 


CONJUGATION  OF  SUM  AND  POSSUM.  97 

INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.      esse,  to  be. 

Perf.      fuisse,  to  have  been.  

Fut.       f  uturus  esse  or  fore,  futurus,  -a,  -urn,  on  the  point 

to  be  on  the  point  of         of  being. 

being. 

a.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  parts  of  sum  are  from  two  differ- 
ent roots,  Ves  for  the  tenses  from  the  present  stem,  the  e  dis- 
appearing in  various  forms,  and  s  between  two  vowels  becoming 
r  (see  67)  ;  and  'Vfu  for  the  other  forms.     Fueram,  fuissem, 
etc.,  are  compounded  of  both  roots. 

b.  A  present  participle  sens  is  seen  in  the  compounds  absens 
and  praesens. 

c.  Old  forms  are  — 

Present  Subj.  siem,  sies,  siet,  sient. 

fuam,  fuas,  fuat,  fuant. 

Imperf.  Subj.  forem,  fores,  foret,  forent. 

Perfect  Subj.  fuverint. 

Pluperf.  Subj.  fuvisset. 

Perf.  Indie.  fuvimus. 

Fut.  Indie.  escit,  escunt.* 

d.  Prosum,  am  profitable,  retains  the  original  d  of  the  prepo- 
sition where   the   simple  verb   begins  with   a  vowel.      Thus : 
prositm,  prodes,  prodest,  etc. 

216.   possum,  compounded  of  potis,  able,  and  sum,  is 
conjugated  as  follows :  — 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

Singular.  Plural. 

possum,  I  can.  possumus,  we  can. 

potes,  thou  canst.  potestis,  you  can. 

potest,  he  can.  possunt,  they  can. 

*  Really  inceptive  presents. 


98  INFLECTION. 


IMPERFECT. 

poteram,  I  could.  poteramus,  we  could, 

poteras,  thou  couldst.  poteratis,  you  could, 

poterat,  he  could.  poterant,  they  could. 

FUTURE. 

potero,  I  shall  be  able.  poterimus,  we  shall  be  able, 

poteris,  thou  wilt  be  able.  poteritis,  you  will  be  able, 

poterit,  he  will  be  able.  poterunt,  they  will  be  able. 

PERFECT. 

potui,    I    have    been     able  potuimus,  we  have  been  able 

(could).  (could), 

potuisti,  thou  hast  been  able  potuistis,  you  have  been  able 

(couldst).  (could), 

potuit,   he    has    been    able  potuerunt   (-re),    they    have 

(could).  been  able  (could). 

PLUPERFECT. 

potueram,  I  had  been  able,      potueramus,    we    had    been 

able, 
potueras,  thou   hadst  been      potueratis,  you  had  been  able. 

able, 
potuerat,  he  had  been  able,      potuerant,  they  had  been  able. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

potuero,  I  shall  have  been  potuerimus,  we  shall  have  been 
able.  able. 

potueris,  thou  wilt  have  been  potueritis,  you  will  have  been 
able.  able. 

potuerit,  he  will  have  been  potuerint,  they  will  have  been 
able.  able. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT.  IMPERFECT. 

Singular.         Plural.  Singular.         Plural. 

possim       posslmus  possem       possemus 

possis         possitis  posses         possetis 

possit         possint  posset         possent 


THE  FOUR  CONJUGATIONS.  99 


PERFECT.  PLUPERFECT. 

potuerim     potuerimus         potuissem    potuissemus 
potueris       potueritis  potuisses      potuissetis 

potuerit       potuerint  potuisset      potuissent 

(No  Imperative.) 

INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLE 

Pres.  posse  (used  only  as  adjective). 

Perf.  potuisse  Pres.  potens 

a.  Rare  forms  are  — 
Pres.  Indie,     potessunt. 

Pres.  Subj.     potessim,  potessit ;   possiem,  possies, 

possiet. 

Imper.  Subj.  potessem. 
Pres.  Infin.     potesse. 

b.  With  a  passive  infinitive  are  sometimes  found  — 

potestur,  poteratur,  possetur. 

THE  FOUR  CONJUGATIONS. 

217.  Regular  Verbs  are  divided  into  four  conjugations, 
distinguished  by  the  vowel  before  the  ending  (-re)  of 
the  present  .infinitive  active.  Thus:  — 

Conjugation.     Infinitive.     Vowel.* 
I.  amare  a. 

II.  monere         e. 

III.  regere  t        ©• 

IV.  audire  I. 

a.  The  four  conjugations  are  produced  by  the  union  of  pre- 
cisely the  same  endings  with  different  kinds  of  verb-stems,  and 
are  therefore  strictly  only  one  conjugation.  Verbs  with  stems 
in  a-  belong  to  the  first  conjugation,  those  with  stems  in  e-  to 
the  second,  those  with  consonant  or  u-  stems  to  the  third,  and 
those  with  stems  in  I-  to  the  fourth. 

*  This  vowel  is  sometimes  called  the  CHARACTERISTIC. 
t  See  first  footnote,  page  100. 


100  INFLECTION. 

b.  Between  the  verb-stem  and  the  ending  in  the  tenses  from 
the  present  stem  there  is  a  vowel  called  the  THEMATIC  vowel. 
This  vowel  contracts  with  the  stem  vowel  in  the  first,  second, 
and  fourth  conjugations,  producing  a,  e,  I,  respectively.  In  the 
third  conjugation  it  appears  as  u  (older  o)  before  a  nasal  (m 
and  n),  and  as  e  (often  weakened  to  i)  before  other  consonants.* 

Formation  of  the  Three  Tense-Stems. 

218.  (1.)  In  the  first  and  fourth  conjugations,  and  in 
the  few  corresponding  verbs  of  the  second,  the  stems  show 
the  following  formations :  — 

a.  Present  stem  is  the  verb-stem  contracted  with  the  thematic 

vowel. 

b.  Perfect  stem  is  present  stem  -f-  v. 

c.  Perfect  participle  stem  is  present  stem  -f-  to. 
Thus:  — 

amare  Vam  ama-  amav-          amato 

flere  Vfle(v)         fie-  flev-  fleto- 

audire  Vaud  audi-  audiv-          audlto- 

(2.)  But  in  the  second  conjugation  most  verbs  form  the 
perfect  stem  directly  from  the  root,  v  then  appearing 
as  u  after  the  root-consonant ;  their  perfect  participle 
stem  is  also  formed  directly  from  the  root  and  frequently 
has  an  intervening  i  before  the  ending.  Thus :  — 
docere  Vdoc  doce-  docu-  docto- 

monere          Vmon        mone-          monu-         monito-f 

219.  (1.)    In   the  third  conjugation  the  present  and 

*  The  third  conjugation  is  the  oldest,  and  shows  the  noun  origin  of  the 
infinitive  most  plainly,  namely,  that  it  is  really  the  dative  or  locative  of  a 
noun  like  genus  or  pignus,  dative  generl  and  plgnerl.  Old  forms  of  the 
dative  in  e  occur  in  inscriptions. 

t  The  origin  of  this  i  is  uncertain.  It  may  be  the  thematic  vowel,  or  in 
some  cases  a  parasitic  vowel  (see  64),  or,  which  is  perhaps  most  likely,  it 
may  have  been  weakened  from  e ;  as,  monetum,  monfftum,  monitum.  Words 
like  obsoletus  and  moneta,  with  the  series  of  nouns  in  -etum,  —  vinetum,  quer- 
cetum,  etc. ,  —  beside  forms  like  mereto  in  inscriptions,  support  this  last 
view. 


VERBS.  —  STEMS.  —  PRINCIPAL    PARTS. 


101 


perfect  stems  present  various  peculiarities  which  can  best 
be  treated  in  detail  later.  The  commonest  forms  01  per- 
fect stem  are  those  in  s-,  and  those  which  have  the  same 
form  as  the  present  stem,  or  only  lengthen  the  stem-vowel. 
(2.)  The  perfect  participle  stem  is  formed  from  the 
root  except  in  the  case  of  the  derivative  u-  verbs,  where 
it  is  formed  from  the  stem  with  the  vowel  lengthened. 
The  t  often  appears  euphonically  as  s.  Thus :  — 

regere  Vreg          rege-  rex-  recto- 

fundere         Vfud          funde-         fud-  fuso- 

statuere        Vsta          statue-        statu-          statute- 
Principal  Parts. 

220.  The  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  of  a  Latin  verb  are  the 
Present  Indicative,  Present  Infinitive,  Perfect  Indicative, 
and  Perfect  Participle.     In  the  case  of  passive  and  depo- 
nent verbs  the  perfect  participle  is  not  counted,  being  in- 
cluded in  the  perfect  indicative. 

NOTE.  The  principal  parts  are  so  called  because  they  furnish  the  key 
to  the  conjugation  of  the  whole  verb.  The  present  indicative  names  the 
verb.  The  present  infinitive  is  also  used  to  name  the  verb,  as  in  English, 
but  its  more  important  function  is  to  show  to  which  conjugation  the  verb 
belongs.  The  three  stems  are  shown  by  the  infinitive,  the  perfect,  and  the 
perfect  participle. 

221.  The  principal  parts  in  the  four  conjugations  are 
as  follows  :  — 


Conjugation.                  Pres.  Ind. 

Pres.  Inf. 

Perf.  Ind. 

Perf.  Part. 

I.                   amo 

amare 

amavi 

amatus 

fleo 

flere 

flevi 

fletus 

II. 

doce5 

docere 

doom 

doctus 

moneo 

monere 

monui 

monitus 

reg5 

regere 

rexi 

rectus  * 

III. 

fund5 

fundere 

fudi 

fusus  * 

statuo 

statuere 

statui 

statutus  * 

IV.                 audio 

audire 

audlvl 

audltus 

*  These  examples  show,  of  course,  only  a  few  of  the  stem  forms  in  this 
conjugation. 


102 


INFLECTION. 


222.  ACTIVE  VOICE. 

I.  Conjugation.  II.  Conjugation. 

amare,  Here,  monere, 

to  love  to  weep  to  put  in  mind 


Pres.  Ind. 
Pres.  Infin. 
Perf.  Ind. 
Perf.  Part. 


Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

am5  fieo 

amare  flere 

amavl  flevl 

amatus  fletus 

K, 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 

amo  fleo 

amas  fles 

amat  flet 


am  am  us 

amatis 

amant 


flemus 

fletis 

flent 


IMPERFECT. 

amabam  flebam 

amabas  flebas 

amabat  flebat 

amabamus  flebamus 

amabatis  flebatis 

amabant  flebant 


amabo 

amabis 

amabit 


FUTURE. 

flebo 
flebis 
flebit 


amabimus        flebimus 
amabitis  flebitis 

amabunt  flebunt 


moneo 
monere 
monul 
monitus 


moneo 
mones 
monet 

monemus 

monetis 

monent 


monebam 

monebas 

monebat 

monebamus 

monebatis 

monebant 


monebo 
monebis 
monebit 

monebimus 

monebitis 

monebunt 


REGULAR  PARADIGMS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


103 


ACTIVE  VOICE. 

III.  Conjugation.  IV.  Conjugation, 

regere,  capere,  venire,  audire, 


to  rule 


rego 
regere 
rexi 
rectus 


to  take 


to  come 


PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

capio  veni5 

capere  venire 

cepi  veni 

captus  ventum  * 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 
PRESENT  TENSE. 


to  hear 


audio 
audire 
audivi 
auditus 


rego 

capio 

venio 

audi5 

regis 

capis 

venis 

audis 

regit 

capit 

venit 

audit 

regimus 

capimus 

venimus 

audimus 

regitis 

capitis 

venitis 

auditis 

regunt 

capiunt 

veniunt 

audiunt 

IMPERFECT. 


regebam 
regebas 
regebat 

capiebam 
capiebas 
capiebat 

veniebam 
veniebas 
veniebat 

audiebam 
audiebas 
audiebat 

regebamus 
regebatis 
regebant 

capiebamus 
capiebatis 
capiebant 

veniebamus 
veniebatis 
veniebant 

audiebamus 
audiebatis 
audiebant 

FUTURE. 

regam 
reges 
reget 

capiam 
capies 
capiet 

veniam 
venies 
veniet 

audiam 
audies 
audiet 

regemus 
regetis 
regent 

capiemus 
capietis 
capient 

veniemus 
venietis 
venient 

audiemus 
audietis 
audient 

*  Used  only  impersonally,  since  venire  is  an  intransitive  verb.     (Cf.  194.) 


104 


INFLECTION. 


PERFECT. 

Singular        amavi  flevi  monul 

amavisti  flevisti  monuisti 

amavit  flevit  monuit 

Plural  amavimus  flevimus  monuimus 

amavistis  flevistis  monuistis 

amaverunt  fleverunt  monuerunt 
(-ere)*               (-ere)  (-ere) 

PLUPERFECT. 

Singular        amaveram  fleveram  monueram 

amaveras  fleveras  monueras 

amaverat  fleverat  monuerat 

Plural  amaveramus  fleveramus  monueramus 

amaveratis  fleveratis  monueratis 

amaverant  fleverant  monuerant 

FUTURE    PERFECT. 

Singular        amaverS  fleverS  monuerS 

amaveris  fleveris  monueris 

amaverit  fleverit  monuerit 

Plural  amaverimus  fleverimus  monuerimus 

amaveritis  fleveritis  monueritis 

amaverint  fleverint  monuerint 


Singular 


Plural 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

amem 
ames 
amet 

fleam 
fleas 
fleat 

amemus 
ametis 
ament 

fleamus 
fleatis 
fleant 

moneam 

moneas 

raoneat 

moneamus 

moneatis 

moneant 


*  The  forms  in  -ere  are  rare  in  prose,  except  in  the  historians. 


REGULAK   PARADIGMS   OF   CONJUGATIO 


PERFECT. 

rexi 
rexistl 
rexit 

cepi                   veni 
cepisti              venisti 
cepit                 venit     % 

audivi 
audlvistl 
audlvit 

reximus 
rexistis 
rexerunt 
(-ere)* 

cepimus           veniraus 
cepistis            venistis 
ceperunt          venerunt 
(-ere)                (-ere) 

audivimus 
audivistis 
audiverunt 
(-ere) 

PLUPERFECT. 

rexeram 
rexeras 
rexerat 

ceperam           veneram 
ceperas             veneras 
ceperat             venerat 

audiveram 
audiveras 
audiverat 

rexeramus 
rexeratis 
rexerant 

ceperamus      veneramus 
ceperatis          veneratis 
ceperant          venerant 

audlveramus 
audiveratis 
audlverant 

FUTURE    PERFECT. 

rexero 
rexeris 
rexerit 

cepero              venero 
ceperis             veneris 
ceperit             venerit 

audivero 
audiveris 
audiverit 

rexerimus 
rexeritis 
rexerint 

ceperimus       venerimus 
ceperitis          veneritis 
ceperint           venerint 

audiverimus 
audiveritis 
audiverint 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

regain 
regas 
regat 

capiam             veniam 
capias               venias 
capiat               veniat 

audiam 
audias 
audiat 

regamus 
regatis 
regant 

capiamus         veniamus 
capiatis            veniatis 
capiant            veniant 

audiamus 
audiatis 
audiant 

*  The  forms  in  -ere  are  rare  in  prose,  except  in  the  historians. 


106 


INFLECTION. 


IMPERFECT. 

Singular    amarera                flerem 
amares                   fleres 
amaret                  fleret 

monerem 
moneres 
moneret 

Plural        amaremus 
amaretis 
amarent 

fleremus 
fleretis 
flerent 

moneremus 
moneretis 
monerent 

Singular    amaverim 
amaveris 
amaverit 

PERFECT. 

fleverim 
fleveris 
fleverit 

monuerim 
monueris 
monuerit 

Plural        amaverimus 
amaveritis 
amaverint 

fleverimus 
fleveritis 
fleverint 

monuerimus 
raonueritis 
monuerint 

PLUPERFECT. 

Singular    araavissein           flevissem 
amavisses            flevisses 
amavisset             flevisset 

monuissem 
monuisses 
monuisset 

Plural        amavissemus 
amavissetis 
amavissent 

flevissemus 
flevissetis 
flevissent 

monuisseraus 
monuissetis 
monuissent 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

Sing.  2d  Per.     ama 
Plur.  2d  Per.     amate 

PRESENT. 

fle 
flete 

mone 
monete 

Sing.  2d  Per.     amat5 
3d  Per.     amato 

FUTURE. 

flet5 
flet5 

monet5 
monet5 

Plur.  2d  Per.     amat5te 
3d  Per.     amanto 

fletSte 
flento 

monetote 
monento 

REGULAR  PARADIGMS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


107 


IMPERFECT. 

regerem 
regeres 
regeret 

caperem 
caperes 
caperet 

venlrem 
venires 
veniret 

audirem 
audires 
audiret 

regeremus 
regeretis 
regerent 

caper  emus 
caperetis 
caperent 

veniremus 
veniretis 
venirent 

audiremus 
aucHretis 
audirent 

PERFECT. 

rexerim 
rexeris 
rexerit 

ceperim 
ceperis 
ceperit 

venerim 
veneris 
venerit 

audiverim 
audiveris 
audiverit 

rexerimus 
rexeritis 
rexerint 

ceperimus 
ceperitis 
ceperint 

venerimus 
veneritis 
venerint 

audiverimus 
audiveritis 
audiverint 

PLUPERFECT. 

rexissem 
rexisses 
rexisset 

cepissem 
cepisses 
cepisset 

venissem 
venisses 
venisset 

audivissem 
audivisses 
audivisset 

rexissemus 
rexissetis 
rexissent 

cepissemus 
cepissetis 
cepissent 

venissemus 
venissetis 
venissent 

audivissemus 
audivissetis 
audivissent 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

rege 

cape 

veni 

audi 

regite 

capite 

vemte 

audite 

FUTURE. 

regito 
regit5 

capit5 
capita 

vemta 
venita 

audito 
audita 

regitSte 
regunto 

capitate 
capiunto 

vemtate 
veniunta 

auditate 
audiunta 

108 


INFLECTION. 


Pres.         amare 
Perf.         amavisse 
Future      amaturus 
(-a,  -urn) 

Pres.         amans 
Future      amaturus 
(-a,  -urn) 

Gen.  amandi 
D.  &  A.  am  an  do 
Ace.  amandum 


Ace. 
Abl. 


amatum 

fl.Tna.J7Ti 


INFINITIVES. 
flere 
flevisse 
fleturus 
(-a,  -um) 

PARTICIPLES. 
flens 
fleturus 

(-a,  -um) 

GERUND. 
flendi 
flendo 
flendum 

SUPINE. 
[fletum]  * 
fletu 


monere 
monuisse 
moniturus 
(-a,  -um)  esse 

monens 
moniturus 
(-a,  -um) 

monendi 
monendS 
monendum 

monitum 
monitu 


22a  PASSIVE  VOICE. 

I.  Conjugation.  II.  Conjugation. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  amor  doceor  f  moneor 

Pres.  Inf.  amari  doceri  moneri 

Perf.  Ind.  amatus  sum       doctus  sum        monitus  sum 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 
Singular    amor  doceor 

doceris  (-re) 

docetur 

docemur 


Plural 


amor 

amaris  (-re)$ 

amatur 

fl.ma.mnr 

ajuamini 

flma.nt.nr 


moneor 

moneris  (-re) 

monetur 

monemur 

monemini 

monentur 


docemini 
docentur 

*  Not  found  in  actual  use  in  the  Latin  that  has  come  down  to  us. 
t  Meaning,  lam  taught.     The  active  voice  is  perfectly  regular,  and  is 
omitted  only  because  fieo  beside  moneo  furnishes  a  more  instructive  para- 


|  The  forms  in  -re  are  rare  in  the  present  tense. 


REGULAR  PARADIGMS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


109 


INFINITIVES. 

regere  capere  venire  audlre 

rexisse  cepisse  venisse  audivisse 

recturus  capturus          venturus  auditurus 

(-a-,  um)  esse   (-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,-um)  esse 

PARTICIPLES. 

regens  capiens  veniens  audiens 

recturus  capturus          venturus  auditurus 

(-a,  -um)  (-a,  -um)  (-a  -um)  (-a,  -um) 

GERUND. 

regendi  capiendi  veniendi  audiendi 

regendo  capiendo          veniendo  audiendo 

regendum        capiendum      veniendum  audiendum 

SUPINE. 

rectum  captum  ventum  auditum 

rectu  captu  ventu  auditu 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 

III.  Conj.  IV.  Conj.  Deponent. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

regor  capior  audior  mlror* 

regi  cap!  audiri  mirarl 

rectus  sum       captus  sum     auditus  sum  miratus  sum 

INDICATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

regor  capior  audior  miror 

regeris  (-re)  f  caperis  (-re)      audlris  (-re)  miraris  (-re) 

regitur  capitur  auditur  miratur 

regimur  capimur  audimur  miramur 

regimini  capimim  audimini  miramim 

reguntur          capiuntur         audiuntur  mirantur 

*  Meaning,  I  wonder  at  or  admire. 

t  The  forms  in  -re  are  rare  in  the  present  tense. 


110 


INFLECTION. 


IMPERFECT. 


Singular    amabar 

docebar 

monebar 

amabaris 

docebaris 

monebaris 

(-re) 

(-re) 

(-re) 

amabatur 

docebatur 

monebatur 

Plural          RTna.ha.Tmir 

docebamur 

monebamur 

amabamini 

docebamini 

monebaminl 

amabantur 

docebantur 

monebantur 

FUTURE. 

Singular    amabor 

docebor 

monebor 

amaberis  (-re) 

doceberis  (-re) 

moneberis  (-re) 

amabitur 

docebitur 

monebitur 

Plural       amabimur 

docebimur 

monebimur 

amabimim 

docebimini 

monebimini 

amabuntur 

docebuntur 

monebuntur 

PERFECT. 

Singular       amatus 

doctus 

monitus 

(-a,  -um) 

(-a,  -um) 

(-a,  -um) 

Plural          amati 

docti 

moniti 

(-ae,  -a) 

(-ae,  -a) 

(-ae,  -a) 

PLUPERFECT. 

Singular       amatus 

doctus 

monitus 

(-a,  -um) 

(-a,  -um) 

(-a,-um) 

Plural           amati 

docti 

moniti 

(-ae,-a) 

(-ae,  -a) 

(-ae,  -a) 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

Singular       amatus 

doctus 

monitus 

(-a,-um) 

(-a,  -um) 

(-a,  -urn) 

Plural           amati 

docti 

moniti 

(-ae,  -a) 

(-ae,  -a) 

(-ae,  -a) 

REGULAR   PARADIGMS   OF   CONJUGATION. 


Ill 


IMPERFECT. 


regebar 
regebaris 
(-re) 
regebatur 
regebamur 
regebarnini 
regebantur 

capiebar 
capiebaris 
(-re) 
capiebatur 
capiebamur 
capiebamini 
capiebantur 

audiebar 
audiebaris 
(-re) 
audiebatur 
audiebamur 
audiebamini 
audiebantur 

mirabar 
mirabaris 
(-re) 
mirabatur 
mirabamur 
mlrabamini 
mirabantur 

FUTURE. 

regar  capiar  audiar  mlrabor 

regeris  (-re)  capieris  (-re)  audieris  (-re)  miraberis  (-re) 

regetur         capietur  audietur  mirabitur 

regeniur        capiemur  audiemur  mirabimur 

regemini       capiemim  audiemim  mirabimim 

regentur       capientur  audientur  mirabuntur 


rectus 


captus 


PERFECT. 

auditus 


mlratus 


(-a,  -um)     (-a,  -um)       (-a,  -um) 

recti  capti  auditi 

(-ae,  -a)       (-ae,  -a)        (-ae,  -a) 


sum 


mirati 


(  sumus 
~J  estis 
(-ae'"a>     Isunt 


PLUPERFECT. 

rectus          captus         auditus          miratus 
(-a,  -um)      (-a,  -um)      (-a,  -um)        (-a,  -um) 


f  erarn 
-<  eras 


recti  capti  auditi 

(-ae,  -a)       (-ae,  -a)         (-ae,  -a) 


mirati 


(  eramus 
\  eratis 
<•«'•*)     (erant 


(  er5 


FUTURE   PERFECT. 

rectus          captus 

(-a,  -um)      (-a,  -urn)       (-a,  -urn)       (-a,  -um)  "J  " 

(  erit 


eris 


recti 
(-ae,  -a) 


capti 
(-ae,  -a) 


auditi 
(-ae,  -a) 


mirati 


(  erimus 

f         oX    \  eritis 
(-ae,  -a)    \ 

lerunt 


112 


INFLECTION. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 


Singular      amer 

ameris  (-re) 
ametur 


Plural 


amemur 
amemini 
amentur 


PRESENT. 

docear  monear 

docearis  (-re)  monearis  (-re) 

doceatur  moneatur 

doceamur  moneamur 

doceamini  moneamini 

doceantur  moneantur 


IMPERFECT. 

Singular 

amarer 
amareris 
(-re) 
amaretur 

docerer 
docereris 
(-re) 
doceretur 

monerer 
monereris 
(-re) 
moneretur 

Plural 

amaremur 
amareminl 
amarentur 

doceremur 
docereminl 
docerentur 

moneremur 
moneremini 
monerentur 

PERFECT. 

Singular 

amatus 
(-a,  -um) 

doctus 
(-a,  -um) 

monitus 
(-a,  -um) 

Plural 

amati 
(-ae,  -a) 

docti 

(-ae,  -a) 

moniti 
(-ae,  -a) 

PLUPERFECT. 

Singular 

amatus 
(-a,  -um) 

doctus 
(-a,-um) 

monitus 
(-a,  -um) 

Plural 

amati 
(-ae,  -a) 

docti 
(-ae,  -a) 

moniti 
(-ae,  -a) 

REGULAR  PARADIGMS  OF  CONJUGATION. 


113 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

regar  capiar  audiar  mirer 

regaris  (-re)  capiaris  (-re)       audiaris  (-re)  mlreris  (-re) 

regatur         capiatur  audiatur  miretur 

regamur       capiamur  audiamur  miremur 

regamini      capiamini  audiamini  miremini 

regantur       capiantur  audiantur  mirentur 


IMPERFECT. 

regerer          caperer 

audirer 

mirarer 

regereris       capereris 

audireris 

mirareris 

(-re)               (-re) 

(-re) 

(-re) 

regeretur      caperetur 

audiretur 

miraretur 

regeremur    caperemur 

audiremur 

miraremur 

regeremini  caperemini 

audiremini 

miraremini 

regerentur   caperentur 

audirentur 

mirarentur 

PERFECT. 

rectus  captus         auditus        miratus        ( smi 

(-a,  -um)        (-a,  -um)     (-a,  -um)        (-a,  -um)  1  s; 

I.  sit 

recti  capti  auditi  mirati 

(-ae,  -a)        (-ae,  -a)         (-ae,  -a)         (-ae,  -a) 


rectus 


PLUPERFECT. 

captus         auditus        miratus 


(-a,  -um)      (-a,  -um)      (-a,  -um)        (-a,  -um) 


recti 


capti 


audit! 


mirati 


(-ae,  -a)        (-ae,  -a)         (-ae,  -a)         (-ae,  -a) 


1 


f  essemus 

-<  essetis 
(  essent 


114 


INFLECTION. 


Sing.  2  P. 
Plur.2P. 


Sing.  2  P. 
3  P. 

Plur.2P. 
3  P. 


Present 
Perfect 


amare 
fl.ma.minT 

amator 
amator 

amantor 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

PRESENT. 

docere 

docemini 

FUTURE. 

docetor 
docetor 


docentor 


monere 
monemini 

monitor 
monetor 

monentor 


INFINITIVES. 

amari                doceri  moneri 

amatus             doctus  monitus 

(-a,  -um)  esse     (-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,  -inn)  esse 


Future      amatum  iri      doctum  iri 
PARTICIPLES. 


monitum  iri 


Present 
Perfect 

Future 

amatus 
(-a,  um) 

doctus 
(-a,-um) 

GERUNDIVE. 
docendus 
(-a,  -um)     - 

monitus 
(-a,  -um) 

monendus 
(-a,-um) 

amandus 
(-a,-um) 

REGULAR  PARADIGMS  OF  CONJUGATION.    115 


IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 


PRESENT. 

regere 

capere 

audire 

mirare 

regimini 

capimini 

audimini 

miramini 

FUTURE. 

regitor 
regitor 

capitor 
capitor 

auditor 
auditor 

mirator 
mirator 

reguntor         capiuntor          audiuntor        mirantor 

INFINITIVES. 

regi  capi  audiri  mirari 

rectus  captus  auditus  miratus 

(-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,  -um)  esse  (-a,  -um)  esse 

f  miratum  iri  * 
rectum  iri       captum  iri        auditum  iri  •<  miraturus 

(  (-a,  -um)  esse 
PARTICIPLES. 

mirans 

rectus  captus  auditus  miratus 

(-a,  -um)  (-a,  -um)  (-a,  -um)  (-a,  -um) 

•  miraturus 

(-a,  -um) 

mirandus  * 
(-a,  -um) 

GERUND. 
mirandi,  etc. 

SUPINE. 
miratum,  etc. 

*  The  gerundive  and  the  infinitive  in  iri  have  passive  meanings  even  in 
deponent  verbs.  Thus  :  hie  vir  mirandus  est,  this  man  must  be  admired ; 
dlxit  hoc  miratum  iri,  he  said  this  would  be  wondered  at.  So  also  some- 
times the  perfect  participle. 


regendus 
(-a,  -um) 


GERUNDIVE. 

capiendus          audiendus 
(-a,  -um)  (-a,  -um) 


OF   1 


TJNIVERSr 


116  INFLECTION. 

224.  The  following  forms  can  always  be  recognized  by 
the  presence  of  certain  letters :  *  — 

1.  Imperf.  indie.,  ba. 

2.  Fut.  indie,  in  1st  and  2d.  conj.,  b  not  followed  by  a. 

3.  Pres.  subj.,  f  except  in  1st  conj.,  a  before  personal  ending. 

4.  Imperf.  subj.  is  like  pres.  infin.  -^  personal  ending. 

5.  Pluperf.  indie.,  ra.  \ 

6.  Pluperf.  subj.,  isse  -|»  personal  ending.  V-  In  the  active. 

7.  Perf.  infin.,  isse.  ) 

a.  It  will  also  be  seen  that  the  present  imperative  passive 
second  person  singular  has  the  same  form  as  the  present  infini- 
tive active.     Furthermore,  that  the  subjunctive  present  of  the 
first  conjugation  resembles  the  future  indicative  of   the  third 
and  fourth. 

b.  The  letters  ri  show  that  the  form  in  which  they  occur  is 
either  future  perfect  indicative  or  perfect  subjunctive  active. 

The  following  points  may  be  noted  in  addition  to  the  rules  of 
quantity  given  in  37-63. 

225.  In  the  penultimate  syllables  of  verb  forms  the 
following  vowels  before  a  single  consonant  are  long  :  — 

a  always  (but  see  dare). 

e,  except  before  r,  and  even  then  in  the  perfect  indicative  ac- 
tive and  in  the  present  subjunctive  of  the  first  conjugation  and 
the  future  indicative  of  the  third  and  fourth. 

i  in  the  fourth  conjugation  and  analogous  forms. 

U,  except  in  sumus  and  volumus  (with  their  compounds),  and 
the  old  forms  quaesumus,  aestumo,  etc.  (for  later  quaerimus, 
aestinio,  etc.). 

*  To  trace  the  origin  and  development  of  these  elements  in  verb-forms 
would  require  entering  more  fully  into  comparative  philology  than  is  possi- 
ble or  desirable  in  a  school  grammar.  They  may  be  found  discussed  in 
Max  Engelhardt's  Die  lateinische  Conjugation  nach  den  Ergebnissen  der 
Sprachvergleichung. 

t  The  first  person  singular  in  the  third  and  fourth  conjugations  cannot, 
however,  be  thus  distinguished  from  the  first  person  of  the  future  indica- 
tive, as  that  also  has  the  a. 


REMARKS  ON  THE  VERB  FORMS.         117 

a.  The  characteristics  of  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  conju- 
gations (a,  e,  1)  are  always  long  except  when  shortened  in  final 
syllables  by  the  rules  given  in  46-5O  ;  that  of  the  third  conju- 
gation (e)  is  always  short. 

Remarks  on  tne  Verb  Forms. 

226.  Many  verbs  belonging  to  a  given  one  of  the  four 
conjugations  (as  shown  by  their  present  infinitive)  form 
their  perfect  and  perfect  participle  stems  after  the  anal- 
ogy of  some  other  conjugation.     Thus  :  — 

seco  secare  secui  sectus 

peto  petere  petivi  petltus 

maneo  manere  mansi  mansum  (neut.) 

veni5  venire  veni  ventum  (neut.) 

NOTE.  Such  verbs  are  really  mixtures  of  two  verbs.  Some  of  the 
forms  of  the  root  verbs  (third  conjugation)  had  disappeared,  and  their 
places  were  taken  by  derivative  formations  of  the  first,  second,  or  fourth 
conjugation.  The  same  mixture  of  forms  accounts  for  the  perfects  in  -ill 
and  participles  in  -itus,  in  the  second  conjugation. 

For  lists  of  these  irregular  formations  see  233  ff. 

227.  In  the  tenses  formed  from  the  present  stem  the 
following  points  should  be  noted  :  — 

a.  Orior,  rise,  and  (chiefly  in  verse)  potior,  gain  possession 
of,  though  belonging  to  the   fourth  conjugation,  have  several 
forms  of  the  third.     Thus  :  — 

oreris,  oritur,  orimur,  oreretur,  orere. 
potitur,  potimur,  poti,  poteremur,  poterentur. 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  morior,  die,  and  some  compounds  of 
gradior,  step,  though  of  the  third  conjugation,  have  sometimes 
infinitives  in  -irl,  like  the  fourth. 

c.  The  imperfect  indicative  in  the  fourth  conjugation  some- 
times has  a  form  in  -ibam,  -ibas,  etc.     Thus :  scibam,  from 
scire,  to  know. 

d.  The  future  in  the  fourth  conjugation  often  has  in  early 
Latin  a  form  in  -ib5,  -ibis,  etc.     Thus :  scibo. 

e.  The  second  person  singular  of  the  present  imperative  active 


118  INFLECTION. 

has  no  final  -e  in  the  following  four  verbs :  died,  say ;  duco,  lead ; 
fero,  bring ;  facio,  do  or  make.  Thus  :  die,  due,  fer,  fac.  So 
also  their  compounds,  except  the  compounds  of  facio  with  a 
preposition  ;  as,  confice,  from  conficw. 

Scio  has  no  present  imperative ;  nor  do  cupe  and  polle  occur, 
from  cupio  and  polled. 

f.  The  active  forms  of  the  future  imperative  occur  instead  of 
the  passive  in  the  early  writers  and  their  imitators.     This  is  es- 
pecially common  in  deponent  verbs.    An  ancient  form  in  -mino 
is  found  in  the  second  and  third  persons  singular  of  the  present 
imperative  of  several  deponents  ;  *  as,  antestamino,  let  him  sum- 
mon as  a  witness  ;  tu  progredimiiio,  you  go  ahead. 

g.  In   the   third    and   fourth   conjugations   the  gerund  and 
gerundive  often  retain  the  earlier  endings  -undum  and  -undus 
instead  of  -endum  and  -endus,  especially  if  i  precedes.     Poti- 
undus  is  the  regular  form.     Ire,  to  go,  has  always  eundum  (see 
248). 

228.  Among  the  tenses  formed  from  the  perfect  stem 
the  following  points  require  notice  :  — 

a.  When  the  perfect  stem  ends  in  v-,  the  V  is  often  dropped, 
and  the  vowels  thus  brought  together  are  contracted  in  the  forms 
made  upon  the  pattern  of  the  fourth  conjugation,  if  s  follows, 
and  in  the  forms  of  other  conjugations,  if  s  or  r  follows  ;  as :  — 

audlssem  for  audlvissem 
amasti         "     amavisti 
implerunt  "    impleverunt 
nor  am         "    noveram 
nosse  "    novisse 

consuesse  "     consuevisse 

b.  When  the  perfect  stem  ends  in  iv-,  the  V  is  sometimes 
dropped  without  contraction ;  as  :  — 

audiisse    for  audivisse 
petierunt    "     petiverunt 

*  This  form  occurs  once  from  a  passive  verb,  denuntidmino   (3d  pers. 
sing.),  let  it  be  proclaimed. 


PERIPHRASTIC   CONJUGATIONS.  119 

c.  When  the  perfect  stem  ends   in  s-  or  x-,  shorter  forms 
occur   without    the  penultimate   syllables  -is-,   -iss-,    or   -sis-. 
Thus :   evasti,  exstinxti,   surrexe,   accestis,   dlxfi,   exstmxem, 
beside  evasisti,  exstlnxistl,  surrexisse,  accessistis,  dixistl,  ex- 
stinxissem.* 

d.  Ancient  forms  of  a  future  perfect  in  -so,  and  of  a  perfect 
subjunctive  in  -sim,  formed  from  the  present  stem,  sometimes 
occur ;  as,  capso,  faxo,  habesso,  iusso,  levasso,  recepso  ;  ausim, 
confexim,  dixis,  emissim,  faxim,  licessit,  locassim.     So  also  the 
pluperfect  subjunctive /tern. 

e.  A  future  passive  of  similar  form  occurs  rarely  in  ancient 
Latin ;  as,  turbassitur,  mssitur  /  and  a  future  infinitive  active 
of  the  first  conjugation  in  -sere ;  as,  expugnassere,  impetrassere. 

PERIPHRASTIC  CONJUGATIONS. 

229.  (1.)  The  future  participle  joined  with  the  forms 
of  sum  makes  what  is  called  the  ACTIVE  periphrastic  con- 
jugation. Thus :  — 

amaturus  sum.  I  am  on  the  point  of  loving,  am  destined 

or  intend  to  love,  etc. 
amaturus  eram,  ero,  fui,  etc. 

a.  Fuero  is  hardly  so  used. 

(2.)  The  gerundive  with  the  forms  of  sum  makes  what 
is  called  the  PASSIVE  periphrastic  conjugation  —  denoting 
what  must  or  ought  to  be  done.  Thus  :  — 

amandus  sum,  I  must  be  loved,  or  ought  to  be  loved, 
amandus  eram,  ero,  fui,  etc. 

(3.)  The  perfect  participle  with  the  parts  of  sum  has 
sometimes  a  quasi-adjective  force.  Thus,  forms  like 
amatus  sum,  amatus  essem,  etc.,  may  be  simply  the  pas- 
sive tenses  of  completed  action,  or  the  verb  sum  may 
have  its  regular  time  and  the  participle  be,  as  suggested, 
a  kind  of  adjective. 

*  Some  of  these  were  perhaps  formed  from  the  present  stem  like  the 
forms  treated  in  rf,  others  seem  to  have  come  from  the  regular  forms. 


120 


INFLECTION. 


a.  The  distinctions  of   meaning  here  involved  can  perhaps 
best  be  made  plain  by  a  scheme  like  the  following  :  — 

(  Hist.  Perf .  He  was  killed. 
occisus  est  may  be  equiva-  1  -»    .  **  .    .»r  «       7        7 .77   7 

•<  Perf.  Def.  He  has  been  killed. 

(  Adjec.  &  Verb,  He  is  dead. 

f  The  wicked  are  suffering  pun- 

puniuntur  mall  can   only]      ishment,  or  Men  punish  the 
mean  wicked  (always  or  when  they 

*>      are  caught). 

(I was  loved  (fui,  Hist.  Perf.) 
amatus  fui  may  mean         -j  I  have  been  loved  (fui,   Perf. 

(      Def.) 

b.  On  the  other  hand,  the  English  present  passive  is  expressed 
in  Latin  (1)  by  the  present  only  when  it  denotes  continued  or 
customary  action ;    as,  faenum  secatur,  they  are  cutting  hay  ; 
faenum  aestate  secdtur,  hay  is  cut  in  summer  ;  (2)  by  the  per- 
fect when  it  denotes  a  state  ;  as,  faenum  sectum  est,  the  hay  is 
cut ;  volnus  curatum  est,  the  wound  is  dressed. 

Stem-Formation  in  Third  Conjugation. 

230.  The  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation  may  be  classi- 
fied with  regard  to  their  present  stems  as  follows  * :  — 

a.  Present  stem  is  the  root  (which  serves  also  as  the  verb 
stem)  -|-  the  thematic  vowel.     Thus  :  — 

regere  Vreg 

petere  Vpet 

b.  The  first  consonant  of  the  root  is  prefixed  with  i  (redupli- 
cation^.    This  class  contains  very  few  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

gignere  Vgen  (or  in  weaker  form  Vgn) 

c.  Present  stem  takes  t ;  as :  — 

flectere  Vflec 

*  These  formations  are  remnants  of  the  verb  forms  inherited  by  the 
Latin  from  Indo-European,  and  were  there  originally  produced  by  forma- 
tive suffixes ;  but  of  course  no  thorough  discussion  of  them  can  be  given  in 
a  school  grammar. 


STEM-FORMATION  IN  THIRD   CONJUGATION.         121 

d.  Present  stem  takes  n.     Thus  :  — 

(1)  n  simply  added  to  roots   in   r-  (also  two  vowel   roots)  ; 

as:  — 

spernere  Vsper 

linere  Vli 

sinere  Vsi 

(2)  n  added  to  roots  in  1  and  assimilated  ;  as  :  — 

pellere  (for  pelnere)  Vpel 

faUere  (for  f  alnere)  Vf  al 

(3)  n  inserted  before  a  final  mute  (palatal  or  dental)  ;  as  :  — 

findere  Vfid 

tangere  Vtag 

(4)  n  changed  to  in  before  a  labial  mute  ;  as  :  — 

rumpere  „  Vrup 

e.  Present  stem  takes  so  ;  as  :  — 

pascere  Vpa 

crescere  Vcre 

f.  Present  stem  takes  i-  ;  *  as  :  — 

capio,  capere  \^cap 

facio,  facere  Vfac 

NOTE  1.     These  verbs  in  -16  occupy  a  sort  of  midway  position  between 
the  consonant  sterns  of  the  third  conjugation  and  the  verbs  of  the  fourth 
conjugation,  as  can  be  seen  by  comparing  the  following  verbs  :  — 
lego  legere  leg!  lectus 

capio  capere  cepi  captus 

cupio  cupere  cupivi  cupitus 

venid  venire  veni  ventum 

And  pario,  par  ere,  beside  reperio,  reperlre. 

NOTE  2.  A  few  verbs  show  more  than  one  of  the  formations  described. 
Thus:  disco  (for  di-dc-sco,  Vefec),  learn,  belongs  to  the  reduplicated  class 
and  to  the  sc-  class. 

NOTE  3.    In  some  verbs  the  strengthened  forms  extend  further  than  the 
present  stem  and  sometimes  through  the  entire  verb,  as  in  iungo,  iungere, 
iunctum,  Viug,  and  in  most  of  the  t-  class  except  mltto. 


*  This  i  disappears  before  another  i  and  before  e,  unless  two  consonants 
follow,  as  in  the  present  participle,  the  gerund  and  gerundive.  (Cf.  the 
paradigm  above.) 


122  INFLECTION. 

231.  The   perfect   stem    in   the   third    conjugation   is 
formed  in  the  following  ways :  — 

a.  The  perfect  stem  is  generally  the  same  as  the  present  stem 
when  the  present  stem  ends  in  u-  or  in  nd-.     Thus  :  — 

Verb.  Pres.  Stem.  Perf.  Stem. 

tribuo  tribu-  tribu- 

scanda  scand-  scand- 

b.  The  perfect  stem  adds  s  to  the  root :  — 

(1)  In  most  verbs  with  a  long  vowel  in  the  root  syllable. 
Thus :  — 

figa  fig-  fix- 

ludo  lud-  lus- 

cedo  ced-  cess- 

dico  die-  dix- 

sumo  sum-  sumps- 

(2)  In  most  verbs  with  the  stem  syllable  long  by  position 
(except  those  in  nd-).     Thus  :  — 

carpa  carp-  carps- 

finga  fing-  finx- 

(3)  In  a  few  other  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

coquo  coqu-  COX- 

NOTE.     Some  (mostly  roots  ending  in  a  middle  mute  —  g,  d,  b)  also 
lengthen  the  root  vowel ;  as,  re^o,  rexi,fluo,fluxi  (•/flug},  jingo,  fmxi. 

c.  The  stem  vowel  is  lengthened  in  many  verbs  with  a  single 
short  vowel  before  a  single  consonant  in  the  root  syllable,  a 
becoming  e,  except  before  b  and  V.     Thus :  — 

emo  em-  em- 
fodio  fod-  fod- 
fugiS  fug-  fug- 
lego  leg-  leg- 
ago  ag-  eg- 
capio  cap-  cep- 
scabo  scab-  scab- 
lava  lav-  lav- 
And  in  vinca  vino-  vic- 

d.  The  following  verbs  form  the  perfect  stem  by  reduplication. 


STEM-FORMATION   IN   THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


123 


The  initial  consonant  and  vowel  are  prefixed  to  the  root,  but 
if  the  root  vowel  is  a,  it  is  weakened  to  i  (to  e  in  fallo,  pared, 
and  pario)  ;  if  ae,  to  1 ;  and  if  e  or  o  before  1,  to  U.  When 
the  root  vowel  is  thus  weakened,  the  vowel  of  reduplication  is 
always  e.  Thus :  — 

cado  cad-  cecid- 

caedo  caed-  .  cecld- 

cano  can-  cecin- 

curro  curr-  cucurr- 

disco  disc-  didic- 

fallo  faU-  fefell- 

[pago]  pag-  pepig- 

parc5  pare-  peperc- 

pario  par-  peper- 

pedo  ped-  peped- 

pel!5  pell-  pepul- 

pendo  pend-  pepend- 

posco  pose-  popose- 

pungo  pung-  pupug- 

sist5  sist-*  stit- 

tango  tang-  tetig- 

tendo  tend-  tetend- 

tol!5  toll-  tetul-  (rare) 

tund5  tund-  tutud- 

Findo  and  scindo  have  dropped  the  reduplication,  making 
fidi  and  scidl.  Sciscidi  also  occurs. 

(1)  For   convenience   the   few  verbs   of   other  conjugations 
which  have  reduplicated  perfects  are  here  given :  — 
do  dare  dedi 

st5  stare  stetl  f 

mordeo  mordere  momordi 

pendeo  pendere  pependl 

spondeo  spondere  spopond!  t 

tondeo  tondere  totondi 

*  The  si  of  the  present  stem  is  also  reduplication.  It  will  be  seen  that 
in  the  perfect  the  stem  syllable  loses  its  3  :  stitl  for  stistl. 

t  It  will  be  seen  that  the  stem  syllable  loses  its  first  consonant  (s)  when 
.TWO  consonants  are  prefixed  in  reduplication. 


124  INFLECTION. 

(2)  Simple  reduplicated  perfects  have  the  first  two  syllables 
short,  except  cecldi  and  pepedl. 

(3)  Compounds  usually  drop  the  reduplication,  but  it  is  re- 
tained in  the  compounds  of  do,  sto,  disco,  posed,  and  sometimes 
curro.*     Thus :  — 

dedo  dedidi  f 

consto  constiti  f 

circumsto  circumsteti 

perdisc5  perdidici 

exposes  expoposci 

decurrS  decucurri  or  decurri 

232.  The  perfect  participle  stem  ends  in  so-  instead  of 
to-  in  the  following  cases :  — 

a.  When  the  present  stem  ends  in  a  dental  mute.     A  short 
vowel  before  the  ending  is  then  generally  lengthened,  the  mute 
being  dropped.     Thus  :  — 

cado  cad-  caso- 

rado  rad-  raso- 

fundo  fund-  fuso- 

Sometimes  assimilation  occurs  (cf.  65).    Thus  :  — 
fodiS  fod-  f5sso- 

b.  When  the  present  stem  adds  t.     Thus  :  — 

flecto  fleo-t-  flexo- 

c.  Several  stems  in  1  or  r.     Thus :  — 

fallo  fall-  falso- 

curro  curr-  curso- 

So  also     labor  lab-  lapso- 

d.  Palatal  stems  which  drop  the  palatal  before  s  in  the  per- 
fect.    The  palatal  is  also  dropped  in  the  participle.     Thus :  — 

spargo  sparsi  sparsus 

*  Abscondo  has  oftener  abscondi  than  abscondidi. 

t  The  penultimate  vowel  is  thus  weakened  in  compounds  of  these  two 
verbs  with  monosyllabic  prepositions. 


IRREGULAR   STEM-FORMATION,   FIRST   CONJUGATION.  125 

Irregular  Stem-Formation. 

233.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  verbs  of 
the  FIRST  conjugation  which  form  their  perfect  or  perfect 
participle,  or  both,  irregularly :  — 

crepo  crepare         crepui  crepitum,*  make  a  noise. 

Discrepd  has  also  a  regular  perfect ;  increpo  has  regular  forms  and  also 
increpul,  increpitum. 

cubo  cubare          cubui  cubitum,  lie  down. 

Perf .  subj.  cubdris  and  perf .  infin.  cubdsse  occur.     See  also  under  235,  v. 

do  dare  dedi  datus,  give.^ 

domo  domare         domui  domitus,  tame. 

frico  fricare          fricui  frictus  and  fricatus,  rub. 

iuvo  iuvare  iuvl  iutus,  help. 

Also  iuvdturus. 

mico  micare          micui  glitter. 

Dimico,  fight,  has  also  the  regular  forms,  and  emicdturus  occurs. 

neco  necare          necavi  or  necui    necatus,  kill. 

Sneco  has  also  enectus. 

plico  plicare  plicatus  or  plicitus,  fold. 

Implied  and  explico  have  regular  forms  and  also  -plicul,  -plicitus.  So 
also  applied  and  complied,  except  that  complicdvl  is  not  found.  The  other 
compounds  are  regular. 

poto  potare  potavi  potatus  or  potus,t  drink. 

seco  secare  secui  sectus,  cut,  secaturus. 

sono  sonare          sonui  sound. 

Some  compounds  have  -sondturus,  and  resono  has  resondvi. 

sto  stare  steti  stand,  staturus. 

tono  tonare          tonuT  thunder. 

Attono  has  also  attonitus,  intono  has  intondtus. 

veto  vetare          vetui  vetitus,  forbid. 

*  The  neuter  form  of  the  participle  is  given  when  the  verb  is  intransi- 
tive. 

t  Strictly  speaking,  dare  does  not  belong  to  any  of  the  conjugations,  but 
it  is  usually  reckoned  as  of  the  first  because  of  its  ending  -are.  (Cf. 
240,  1.) 

J  Potus  is  really  the  participle  of  the  simple  verb  of  which  poto  is  a  fre- 
quentative, and  often  has  the  active  meaning,  having  drunk. 


126  INFLECTION. 

234.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  verbs  of 
the  SECOND  conjugation  which  form  their  perfect  or  per- 
fect participle,  or  both,  otherwise  than  in  -ui  and  -itus  :  *  — 

a.  ab-oleo                  abolevi  abolitus,  efface. 

de-leo                    delevi  deletus,  blot  out,  destroy. 

fleo                       flevi  fletus,  weep. 

neo                       nevi  netus,  spin. 

-pleo  t                   -plevi  f  -pletus,f  fill. 

b.  algeo                     alsi  -  be  cold. 
ardeo                    arsi  arsum,  be  on  fire. 
audeo                   ausus  sum  ausus,  dare. 
augeo                    auxi  auctus,  increase. 
caveo                    cavi  cautus,  beware. 
censeo                   censui  census,  think. 

cieo                       civi  citus  (particip.  adj.),  call. 

Among  compounds  occur  excitus  and  concitus,  but  accitus. 

doceo                    docui  doctus,  teach. 

fateor                    fassus  sum  fassus,  confess. 

faveo                    f  avi  fautum,  favor. 

ferveo                   ferbul  -  boil.     (Cf.  235.) 

Fervo,  fervere,  fervi,  also  occurs.  (Cf.  235,  L) 

foveo                    fovi  fotus,  cherish. 

fulgeo                   fulsi  -  shine,  gleam. 

gaudeo                  gavisus  sum  gavisus,  rejoice. 

haereo                   haesi  haesum,  stick. 

in-dulgeo              indulsl  indultus,  indulge. 

iubeo                     iussi  iiissus,  bid,  order. 

luceo                     luxi  -  shine,  be  light. 

Polluced  has  polluctum. 

lugeo                    liixi  -  mourn. 

maneo                  mansi  mansus,  stay,  wait  for. 

misceo                  miscui  mistus>  1  mix. 


>  1 
s,  ) 


(  mixtus, 

mordeo  momordi  morsus,  bite. 

moveo  movi  motus,  move. 

mulceo  muls!  mulsus,  soothe. 

Permulctus  occurs. 

*  But  see  231,  rf,  1.  t  In  compounds. 


IRREGULAR   STEM-FORMATION,  THIRD   CONJUGATION.     127 

mulgeo  mulsi  mulsus,  milk. 

paveo  pavi  fear. 

prandeo  prandi  pransus   (act.  meaning}, 

breakfast,  lunch. 

reor  ratus  sum  ratus,  think. 

rldeo  risi  rlsum,  laugh. 

sedeo  sedi  sessuin,  sit. 

sorbeo  sorbui  suck  in. 

Absorbed  has  absorpsl. 

strldeo  stridi  whiz.  (Cf.  235,  i.) 

suadeo  suasi  suasum,  advise. 

teneo  tenui  tentus,  hold. 

tergeo  tersi  tersus,  wipe. 

torqueo  torsi  tortus,  twist. 

torreo  torrui  tostus,  roast. 

turgeo  tursi  swell.  (Cf .  235,  ii.) 

urgeo  (urgueo)  iirsi  urge. 

video  vidi  visus,  see. 

voveo  vovi  votus,  vow. 

235.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  verbs  of 
the  THIRD  conjugation,  arranged  according  to  the  forma- 
tion of  the  perfect  stem  as  given  in  231 :  — 

i.  Perfect  stem  like  present  stem. 

acuo  acui  acutus,  sharpen. 

arguo  argui  argutus  (particip.  adj.), 

accuse,  convict. 

bibo  bibi  bibitus,  drink. 

esso  •[  caPessI  and  \  undertake.  (See  vi., 

(      capessivi  I  below.) 

-cendo  *  -cendi  *  -census,*  kindle. 

congruo  congrui  agree. 

cudo  forge. 

This  verb  has  no  perfect  and  perfect  participle,  but  the  compounds  have 
-cudi,  -cusus. 

*  In  compounds. 


128 


INFLECTION. 


dego  (de-ago)      degi 
ex-uo,  exui 

facesso  facessi 

fido  fisus  sum, 

Confido  has  sometimes  confidi. 


-fendo  * 

-f  endl  * 

fervo 

fervi 

ICO 

IcI 

im-buo 

imbui 

in-duo 

indui 

ingruo 
lambo 

ingrui 
kmbi 

luo 

lui 

Some  compounds 

have  -lutus. 

mando 

rnandi 

metuo 

metui 

minuo 

minui 

-nuo* 

-nui* 

pando 

pandi 

pass  one's  time. 

exutus,  take  off. 
facessitus,  execute. 
fisus,  trust. 

-f  ensus,*  ward  off. 

-boil.  (Cf.234.) 
ictus,  strike. 
imbutus,  wet,  imbue. 
indutus,  put  on. 

rush  upon. 

lick. 

wash,  luiturus. 

mansus,  chew. 
metutus,  fear. 
minutus,  lessen. 
-nutus,*  nod. 


(  pinsitus, } 
pmso  pinsl  and  pinsnl  •<  pmsus,     >•  pound. 

( pistus,     ) 

pluo  plui  or  pliivi  rain, 

pre-hendo  prehendi  (prendi)    prehensus     (prensus), 

(prendo)     •  seize. 

ruo  nil  rutus   (part,  adj.),  fall, 

ruiturus. 

scando                   scandl                        scansus,  climb. 
sido  sidi  settle. 


Compounds  have  sedi,  sessum,  from  sedeo. 


solvo 
statno 

sternuo 
stride 


solvl 

statm 

sternui 
stridi 


solutus,  loose. 
statutus,  place,  fix,  deter- 
mine. 

sneeze. 

whiz.     (Cf.  234.) 


*  In  compounds. 


LISTS   OF  VERBS   IN  THIRD  CONJUGATION. 


129 


suo 

tribuo 

vello 


sui 

tribui 

velli  and  volsi 


verro  verrl 

verto  verti 

viso  visl 

volvo  volvi 

ii.  Perfect  stem  adds  s. 


carpo 

cedo 

cingo 

claudo 

clepo 

como  (com-emo) 

coquo 

demo  (de-emo) 

dico 

di-vido 

duco 

figo 

fingo 

flecto 

fllgo 

fluo 

frendo 


carpsl 

cessi 

cinxi 

clausi 

clepsi 

compsi 

coxi 

dempsi 

dixi 

divisi 

duxi 

flxl 

finxi 

flexi 

flixi 

fluxl 


Compounds  have  also  fresi. 
frigo  frixT 


gero 
-lacio  * 
iungo 


gessi 
-lexi  * 
iunxi 


sutus,  sew. 

tributus,  assign,  ascribe. 

volsus,  pluck.      (See  ii., 

below.) 

versus,  brush,  sweep. 
versus,  turn. 
visus,  see,  visit. 
volutus,  roll. 

carptus,  pluck. 

cessum,  yield. 

cmctus,  gird. 

clausus,  shut. 

cleptus,  steal. 

comptus,  comb,  deck. 

coctus,  cook. 

demptus,  take  away. 

dictus,  say. 

divisus,  divide. 

ductus,  lead,  guide. 

fixus,  fix. 

fictus,  fashion,  feign. 

flexus,  bend. 

flictus,  dash. 

fluxus  (part,  adj.),  flow. 
ffressus,)  ^ 

(  fresus,   ) 

(frlctus,)^ 
(frixus,  V 

gestus,  carry. 

-lectus,*  f  allure. 

iunctus,  join. 


*  In  compounds. 

t  The  perfects  adlicul,  elicul,  perlicul,  and  the  participle  elicitus,  also 
occur. 


60                                         INFLECTION. 

laedo 

laesT 

laesus,  hurt. 

lingo 

linxi 

linctus,  lick. 

ludo 

lusi 

lusus,  play. 

mergo 

mersi 

mersus,  dip. 

mingo 

mmxi 

mictuin,  make  water. 

mitto 

misi 

missus,  send. 

necto 

nexl  (nexiu) 

nexus,  weave. 

ningo 

nmxi 

MI/MM 

nubo 

nupsi 

nuptum,  marry. 

{  panxi  ) 

pactus,  drive    in,  panc- 

pango 

•jpegl      [• 

turus.    (See  iv.  and  v., 

(  pepigl  ) 

below.) 

pecto 

pexi  (pexui) 

|Pexus'     I  comb. 
(  pectitus,  ) 

pingo 

pinxi 

pictus,  paint. 

plango 

planxi 

planctus,  beat,  lament. 

plaudo 

plausi 

plausus,  clap  the  hands. 

plecto 

plexi  (plexui) 

plexus,  twine. 

premo 

press! 

pressus,  press. 

promo  (pro-emo)  prompsi 

promptus,  bring  out. 

quatio 

-cussi  * 

quassus,  shake. 

rado 

rasi 

rasus,  scrape,  shave. 

rego 

rexi 

rectus,  rule. 

repo 

repsi 

reptum,  creep. 

rodo 

rosi 

rosus,  gnaw. 

sarpo 

sarpsi 

sarptus,  prune. 

scalpo 

scalps! 

scalptus,  scrape,  engrave. 

scribo 

scrips! 

scriptus,  write. 

sculpo 

sculps! 

sculptus,  carve. 

serpo 

serps! 

crawl. 

spargo 

spars! 

sparsus,  spread,  scatter. 

specio 

spexi 

-spectus,*  see,  look  at. 

stinguo 

-stinx!  * 

-stmctus,*  quench. 

stringo 

strinxi 

strlctus,  bind,  graze. 

struo 

strux! 

structus,  build. 

*  In  compounds. 


LISTS  OF  VERBS  IN  THIRD   CONJUGATION. 


131 


sugo  suxi 

sumo  (sub-emo)  sumpsi 

tego  texi 

temno  -tempsi  * 

tergo  tersi 

tingo  (tinguo)  tmxi 

traho  traxi 

trudo  trusi 

ungo  (unguo)  unxi 

uro  ussl 

vado  -vasi  * 

veho  vexi 

vello  volsi  and  velll 


vivo  vixi 

iii.  Perfect  lengthens  root  vowel. 


suctus,  suck. 

sumptus,  take. 

tectus,  cover. 

-temptus,*  despise. 

tersus,  wipe.    (Cf.  234.) 

tmctus,  moisten,  stain. 

tractus,  draw. 

trusus,  thrust. 

unctus,  anoint. 

ustus,  burn  (transitive). 

vasum,  go. 

vectus,  draw,  carry. 

volsus,  pluck.      (See   i., 

above.) 
victum,  live. 


ago 

capio 

edo 

emo 

facio 

fodio 

frango 

fugio 

fundo 

iacio 


egi 

cepi 

edT 

emi 

feel 

fodi 

fregl 

fugi 

fudi 

ieci 


actus,  drive. 
captus,  take. 
esus,  eat. 

emptus,  take,  buy. 
factus,  do,  make. 
fossus,  dig. 
fractus,  break. 
f  ugitum,  flee. 
f  usus,  pour. 
iactus,  cast,  throw. 


lavo  lavi 

Also  lavdre,  lavdvi,  lavdtus. 

lego  legi 

linquo  liqui 

rumpo  rupi 

scabo  scab! 

vinco  vlci 


(  lotus, 


lectus,  gather,  read. 
-lictus,*  leave. 
ruptus,  break,  burst. 
-  scratch. 
victus,  conquer. 


*  In  compounds. 


UNIVERSITY 


132 


INFLECTION. 


iv.  Reduplicated  perfects. 


cado 

caedo 

canS 

curro 

disco 

fallo 

pangS 

parcS 
pario 

pellS 

pendS 

pSsco 

pungS 

sis  to 

tango 

tendo 

tundS 


cecidi 

cecidi 

cecini 

cucurri 

didici 

fefelli 

pepigi 

peperci  (pars!) 
peperi 

pepuli 

pependi 

poposci 

pupugi 

stiti 

tetigi 

tetendi 

tutudi 


casum,  falL 
caesus,  cut. 
cantus,  sing. 
cursum,  run. 

learn,  disciturus. 

falsus,  deceive. 

pactus,  drive  in.    (See  ii., 

above,  and  vi.,  below.) 
parcitum  (parsum), 

spare. 
partus,  bring  forth,  pari- 

turus. 

pulsus,  drive. 
pensus,  weigh. 
demand. 


punctus,  prick. 
status  (part,  adj.),  set. 
tactus,  touch. 
tentus  or  tensus,  stretch. 
tunsus  or  tusus,  beat. 
v.  Perfect  stem  adds  v  (u)  to  the  root,  after  the  ana- 
logy of  the  second  conjugation. 

altus  or  alitus,  nourish. 
-celsus,*  push. 
cretus,  decree. 
coitus,  till. 

restrain. 

consultus,  consult. 
cretus,  grow. 
-cubitum,*  lie  down. 
depstus,  knead. 
fremitus,  roar. 

rage. 

gemitum,  groan. 
*  In  compounds.  t  First  person  singular  not  found. 


alo 

alui 

cells 

-cellul* 

cernS 

crevi 

colS 

colui 

com-pesco, 

compescui 

con-sulo, 

consului 

crescS 

crevi 

-cumbo  * 

-cubui* 

depso 

depsui 

fremo 

fremui 

[furo]  f 

furui 

gemo 

gemui 

LISTS   OF  VERBS  IN  THIED   CONJUGATION. 


133 


genitus,  beget. 
litus,  smear. 
messus,  reap. 
molitus,  grind. 
notus,  learn,  find  out. 
occultus,  hide. 

smell. 

pactus,  drive  in.    (See  ii. 

and  iv.,  above.) 
pastus,  feed. 
positus,  put,  place. 
raptus,  seize. 
scitus,  decree. 
satus,  sow. 
sertus,  entwine. 
situs,  lay  down,  allow. 
spretus,  scorn. 
stratus,  strew. 

snore. 

strepitum,  sound. 
textus,  weave. 

tremble. 

vomitus,  vomit. 

wish.     (Cf.  242.) 

Here  may  also  be  given  consuesco,  consuevi  (consuetus,  adj.),  accustom 
one's  self.     So  other  compounds,  and  quiesco,  quievi,  quietum,  rest. 

vi.  Perfect  stems  add  Iv  to  the  root,  after  the  analogy 
of  the  fourth  conjugation. 


gigno 
lino 

genul 
lev!  or  livi 

meto 

messul 

molo 

molui 

nosco 

novi 

oc-culo 

occului 

olo 

olui 

pango 

pegi 

pasco 
pono  (po-sino) 
rapio 

SC1SCO 

pavi 
posui 
rapui 

SC1V1 

sero 

sevi 

sero 

serui 

sino 

sivi 

sperno 
sterno 

sprevi 
stravi 

sterto 

stertui 

strepo 
texo 

strepui 
texui 

tremo 

tremui 

vomo 

vomui 

volo  (velle) 

volui 

arcesso  arcesslvi 

capesso  capessivi 

cupio  cupivi 

incesso  incessivi  or  incessi 

lacesso  lacessivl 

peto  petivi 

quaero  quaesivi 


arcessitus,  summon. 

undertake.    (See  i., 

above.) 
cupitus,  desire. 

attack. 

lacessitus,  provoke. 
petitus,  aim  at. 
quaesitus,  ask,  seek. 


134  INFLECTION. 

rudo                      rudm                       riiditura,  bray. 
sapio  sapivi  be  wise. 

Compounds  have  also  -sipul  in  perfect, 
tero  trivi  tritus,  rub,  wear. 

vii.  No  perfect  or  perfect  participle  stems, 
ango,  choke.  glubo,  peel. 

claudo,  limp.  hisco,  gape  open. 

fatisco,  crack  open.  plector,*  be  punished. 

fulgo,  shine.  tollo,t  raise. 

glisco,  grow.  vergo,  incline. 

236.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  simple 
DEPONENTS  of  the  third  conjugation  :  — 

am-plector  amplexus,  embrace. 

And  other  compounds. 

apiscor  aptus,  get. 

com-miniscor  commentus,  invent. 

And  other  compounds. 

ex-pergiscor  experrectus,  awake. 

frnor  fructus,  enjoy,  fruiturus. 

fungor  functus,  perform. 

gradior  gressus,  walk. 

Irascor  iratus,  be  angry. 

labor  lapsus,  jfa/J,  slip. 

liquor  melt. 

loquor  locutus,  speak. 

morior  $  mortuus,  die,  moritums. 

nanciscor  nactus  or  nanctus,  get. 

nascor  natus,  be  born,  nasciturus. 

uitor  nisus  or  nixus,  lean  upon. 

ob-llviscor  oblitus,  forget. 

paciscor  pactus,  bargain. 

patior  passus,  suffer. 

pro-ficiscor  profectus,  start. 

queror  questus,  complain. 

*  Only  post  classical  in  the  active. 

t  Perf.  and  perf.  part,  supplied  by  the  compound  forms  sustuli,  subldtus. 

t  For  irregular  forms  in  this  verb  see  227,  6. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS,   FOURTH    CONJUGATION.        135 

ringor  rictus,  snarl. 

sequor  secutus,  follow. 

tuor  tuitus,  guard. 

Also  tueor,  tueri. 

ulciscor  ultus,  avenge. 

utor  usus,  use. 

vescor  eat. 

Re-vertor,  reversus,  return,  and  other  compounds  of  verto,  are  generally 
deponent  only  in  the  forms  from  the  present  stem  and  in  the  perfect  par- 
ticiple. 

237.  Except  those  given  in  235  and  236,  the  verbs 
whose  present  stem  ends  in  so-  have  no  perfect  and  per- 
fect participle  stems,  or  else  take  those  of  their  primi- 
tives ;   as,  adhaeresco,  adhaesl,  adhaesum.      When  de- 
rived from  nouns  or  adjectives  they  form  their  perfect 
stem  (in  the  few  cases  in  which  they  have  any)  regularly ; 
those  in  -asc5  having  av-,  and  those  in  -esc5  having  u-, 
after  the  analogy  of  the  first  and  second  conjugatiens ; 
as,  vesperascit,  vesperavit;  duresco,  durui. 

a.  The  quantity  of  the  vowel  before  sc  in  inceptive  verbs  is 
always  long,  except  in  the  few  cases  of  verbs  derived  from  con- 
sonant stems  of  the  third  conjugation.  Thus :  — 

Inveterasco,  adsuesco,  cresco,  disco,  seised,  etc. 

Short  are  — 

Coalesed)  gemisco,  ingemisco,  tremesco,  contremisco,  vwesco, 
revwiscdj  adipiseor,  indipiscor,  depeciscor,  expergiscor,  nan- 
ciscor,  paciseor,  proficiscor,  reminiscor,  ulciscor. 

238.  The  following  list  contains  the  common  verbs  of 
the  FOURTH  conjugation,  which  form  the  perfect  or  perfect 
participle  stem,  or  both,  irregularly :  — 

(  amicui ) 
amicio  -j       '  -    c  aimctus,    dome. 

a-perio  aperuT  apertus,  open. 

ad-sentior  adsensus  sum          adsensus,  assent. 

com-perio  comperl  compertus,  find. 


136 


INFLECTION. 


eo 

ivi 

itum,  go. 

ex-perior 

expertus  sum 

expertus,  try. 

farcio 

farsi 

(fartus,    ) 
-!  £             r  stuff. 
\  f  arctus,  j       M 

fulcio 

fulsl 

f  ultus,  prop  up. 

haurio 

hausi 

haustus,  draw,  hausurus. 

(  mensus,    ) 

metior 

mensus  sum 

>-  measure. 
(  mentitus,  ) 

operio 

operui 

opertus,  cover. 

op-perior 

oppertus  sum 

(oppertus,  7        . 
i                  [•  wait  for. 
(  opperitus,  \ 

ordior 

orsus  sum 

orsus,  begin. 

orior  * 

ortus  sum 

ortus,  rise,  oriturus. 

queo 

quivi 

quitus,  can. 

raucio 



rausum,  be  Jwarse. 

re-perio 

repperl 

repertus,  find. 

saepio 

saeps! 

saeptus,  hedge  in. 

f  salui  ^ 

salio 

•<  sah"vl  > 

leap. 

(salii    ) 

sancio 

sanxi 

(  sancitus,  ) 
•i                 r  ratify. 
(sanctus,  )        Jy 

sarcio 

sarsi 

sartus,  patch. 

(  sarrivi  ^ 

sarrio 

1              >• 

(sarrui  ) 

sarritus,    hoe. 

sentio 

sens! 

sensus,  feel. 

sepelio 

sepellvl 

sepultus,  bury. 

venio 

vem 

ventum,  come. 

vincio 

vinxi 

vinctus,  bind. 

IRREGULAR    VERBS  (Verbaanomala). 

239.  A  few  verbs  take  no  thematic  vowel  in  their 
present  stems,  but  add  the  endings  directly  to  the  root, 
and  are  therefore  called  UNTHEMATIC  verbs,  or,  because 
these  forms  differ  from  those  of  the  regular  conjugations, 
IEREGULAB  verbs. 

*  See  227,  a. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  —  DARE. 


137 


240.  (1.)  Originally  all  verbs  with  vowel  roots  were 
unthematic,  but  all  except  dare,  to  give,  passed  over  into 
the  thematic  conjugation.* 

(2.)  Several  verbs  with  consonant  roots  remained  un- 
thematic in  most  of  the  forms  from  the  present  stem. 
They  are  esse,  be ;  velle,  wish ;  nolle,  be  unwilling ; 
malle,  prefer ;  ferre,  bring ;  fieri,  become ;  edere,  eat. 

The  unthematic  verbs  are  conjugated  as  follows :  — 

241.  dare,  to  give. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PRES.  INDIC.    PRES.  INFIN.    PERF.  INDIC.    PERF.  PART. 
dot  <&re  dedi  datus 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT.  IMPERFECT.  FUTURE. 

do  t  dabam  dabo 

das  dabas  dabis 

dat  dabat  dabit 

damus  dabamus  dabimus 

datis  dabatis  dabitis 

dant  dabant  dabunt 


PERFECT. 
dedi,  etc. 


PRESENT. 

dem        demus 
des          detis 
det          dent 

PERFECT. 

dederim,  etc. 


PLUPERFECT. 

dSderam,  etc. 


FUTURE   PERF. 

dedero,  etc. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

IMPERFECT. 
darem        daremus 
dares          daretis 
daret          darent 

PLUPERFECT. 

dedissem,  etc. 


*  Such  are  fan,  speak ;  flare,  blow ;  ware,  swim ;  stare,  stand ;  flere, 
•weep  ;  nere,  spin ;  -plere,  fill  (used  only  in  compounds)  ;  cire,  call ;  Ire,  go ; 
quire,  be  able;  sclre,  know.  (Cf.  also  230,  d,  1.) 

t  This  form  is,  of  course,  thematic. 


138  INFLECTION. 

IMPERATIVE. 

PRESENT.  FUTURE. 

da*  date  data  datSte 

dato  danto 

IXFTNTTIVE. 
PRESENT.  PERFECT.  FUTURE. 

dare  dedisse          daturus  (-a,  -um)  esse 

PARTICIPLES. 
Pres.  dans,  dantis  Fut.  daturus  (-a,  -urn) 

GERUND.  SUPINE. 

dandi,  etc.  datum,  datti 

a.  The  passive  is  regular,  except  that  the  first  person  of  the 
present  indicative  and  subjunctive  do  not  occur. 

b.  Thus   are   conjugated   the   four-syllabled   compounds,    as 
circumdare,  venumdare,  etc.      The  three-syllabled  compounds 
—  dedere,  edere,  prodere,  reddere,  trddere,  vendere  —  are  reg- 
ular thematic  verbs  of  the  third  conjugation.    So  also  the  follow- 
ing verbs,  which  are  not  compounds  of  do,  dare,  but  of  another 
do  (corresponding  to  the  Greek  rt&p/u),  which  means  put,  set : 
abdere,  addere,  condere,  abscondere,  credere,  indere,  obdere,  per- 
dere,  subdere. 

c.  Early  forms  of  the  present  subjunctive  occur  as  follows : 
duos,  duim,  duis,  duit,  duint.     So  perduim,  perduis,  perduit, 
perduint ;  creduam,  creduas,  creduat,  creduis,  creduint.'f 

For  esse,  see  215. 

242.    velle,  be  willing,  wish. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PRES.  INDIC.  PRES.  INFIN.  PERF.  INDIC. 

volo  velle  volui 

*  This  form  is,  of  course,  thematic. 

t  For  a  few  other  rare  forms,  see  any  large  grammar. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  —  VELLE.  —  NOLLE.         139 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

volo  volumus 

vis  voltis  (vultis) 

volt  (vult)  volunt 

IMPERFECT.  FUTURE.  PERFECT. 

volebam,  etc.  volam,  etc.  volui,  etc. 

PLUPERFECT.  FUTURE  PERFECT. 

volueram,  etc.  voluerS,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT.  IMPERFECT. 

velim          vellmus  vellem          vellemus 

veils  velitis  velles  velletis 

velit  velint  vellet  vellent 

PERFECT.  PLUPERFECT. 

voluerim,  etc.  voluissem,  etc. 

INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  velle  volens 

Perf.  voluisse 

a.  Si  vis,  if  you  please,  is  often  contracted  to  sis. 
243.  nolle  (ne-velle*),  be  unwilling. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PRES.  INDIC.  PRES.  INFIN.  PERF.  INDIC. 

nolo  nolle  nolui 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

no!5  nolumus 

n5n  vis  n5n  voltis  (non  vultis) 

non  volt  (ndn  vult)      nolunt 


140 


INFLECTION. 


IMPERFECT. 

nSlebam,  etc. 

PLUPERFECT. 

nolueram,  etc. 


FUTURE. 

nolam,  etc. 


PERECT. 

nolui,  etc. 


FUTURE   PERFECT. 

noluerS,  etc. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


PRESENT. 

nolim  nolimus 

nolis  nolitis 

nolit  nolint 

PERFECT. 

noluerim,  etc. 


IMPERFECT. 

nollem          nollemus 
noUes  noUetis 

nollet  nollent 

PLUPERFECT. 

noluissem,  etc. 


IMPERATIVE. 


noli 


PRESENT. 

nolite 


FUTURE. 

n5Ht5  nolitote 

nolito 


INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  nolle  nolens 

Perf.  noluisse 

a.  Nevis  and  rievolt  occur  in  Plaotus. 

244.  malle  (mage-velle"),  prefer. 
PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


PRES.  INDIC. 
malo 


PRES.  INFEST. 

malle 
INDICATIVE. 


PERF.  INDIC. 
malui 


PRESENT. 

mala  malumus 

mavis  mavoltis  (mavultis) 

mavolt  (mavult)  malunt 


IRREGULAR    VERBS.  —  MALLE.  —  FEEEE.  141 


IMPERFECT. 

malebam,  etc. 

PLUPERFECT. 

malueram,  etc. 

FUTURE.                           PERFECT. 

malam,  etc.             malul,  etc. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

maluero,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT.  IMPERFECT. 

malim  malimus  mallem         mallemus 

malis  malltis  malles          malletis 

malit  malint  mallet  mallent 

PERFECT.  PLUPERFECT. 

maluerim,  etc.  maluissem,  etc. 

INFINITIVES. 
Pres.  malle 
Perf.  maluisse 

a.  Mavolo,  mavolunt,  mavolet,  mavelim,  mavetts,  mavelit, 
mavellem,  occur  in  Plautus. 

245.  ferre,  bring. 

ACTIVE.  PASSIVE. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

Pres.  Ind.  fero  feror 

Pres.  Inf.  ferre  ferri 

Perf.  Ind.  tuli  *  latus  *  sum 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

fer5  ferimus  feror  ferimur 

f ers  fertis  f erris  (-re)       f erimim 

fert  ferunt  fertur  feruntur 

*  These  forms  are  from  other  roots:  tuli,  from    Vto/,  tollo ;  latus,  for 
tldtus,  from  Vila. 


142 


INFLECTION. 


Imperfect  ferebam,  etc. 

Future  feram,  etc. 

Perfect  tuli,  etc. 

Pluperfect  tuleram,  etc. 

Fut.  Perf.  tulero,  etc. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 


Pres.  feram,  etc. 
Imp.  ferrem,  etc. 
Perf.  tulerim,  etc. 
Plu.    tulissem,  etc. 


ferebar,  etc. 
f  erar,  etc. 
latus  sum,  etc. 
latus  eram,  etc. 
latus  ero,  etc. 


f  erar,  etc. 
ferrer,  etc. 
latus  sim,  etc. 
latus  essem,  etc. 


fer 


ferto 
ferto 


ferte 


IMPERATIVE. 
PRESENT. 

ferre 


FUTURE. 


fertote 
ferunto 


fertor 
fertor 


ferimim 


feruntor 


INFINITIVES. 


Pres.  ferre 
Perf.  tulisse 


ferri 

latus  (-a,  -urn)  esse 


Fut.    laturus  (-a,  -um)  esse       latum  iri 
PARTICIPLES. 


Pres.      ferens 

Perf. 

Future,  laturus,  -a,  -um 

GERUND. 
f erendi,  etc. 

SUPINE. 

latum 
latu 


latus  (-a,  -um) 

GERUNDIVE. 
ferendus  (-a, -urn) 


rN 

RSITY 


IRREGULAR   VERBS. 


a.  Reduplicated  forms  from  the  perfect  stem,  as  tetuli,  etc., 
are  found  in  the  comic  writers. 

246.  fieri,  become.     (It  is  also  used  as  the  passive  of 
facio,  do,  make.) 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 


PRES.  INDIC. 

PRES.  INFIN. 

PERF.  INDIC. 

flo 

fieri 

factus 

sum 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

fio 

fimus 

fis 

fitis 

fit 

fiunt 

IMPERFECT. 

flebam,  etc. 

PLUPERFECT. 

factus  eram,  etc. 


FUTURE.  PERFECT. 

flam,  etc.  factus  sum,  etc. 

FUTURE   PERFECT. 

factus  ero,  etc. 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT.    IMPERFECT.          PERFECT.  PLUPERFECT. 

flam,  etc.     fierem,  etc.  factus  sim,  etc.    factus  essem,  etc. 


IMPERATIVE. 


Present  fi 


INFINITIVES. 

Pres.  fieri 

Perf.  factus  (-a,  -um)  esse 

Fut.    factum  iri 

GERUNDIVE. 
f  aciendus  (-a,  -um) 


fite 
PARTICIPLE. 

factus  (-a,  -um) 

SUPINE. 
factu 


144  INFLECTION. 

a.  Compounds  of.  f acid  which  retain  the  full  form  have/7^  in 
the  passive ;  as,  calefacio,  calefw  ;  benefacw,  benefw.  Confit, 
defit,  and  Inftb  also  occur,  but  compounds  with  prepositions 
regularly  form  their  own  passives ;  as,  cdnficio,  conficior  ;  per- 
ficio,  perficior. 

247.  edere,  eat. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 
ed5  esse  or  edere  edi  esum 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

edo  edimus 

es  or  edis  *  editis  or  estis 

est  or  edit  edunt 

IMPERFECT.         FUTURE.      PERFECT.    PLUPERFECT.      FUT.  PERF. 

edebam,  etc.  edam,  etc.  edi,  etc.  ederam,  etc.   eder5,  etc. 

S  UBJUNCTIVE . 
PRESENT.  IMPERFECT. 

edam      or  edim  ederem       or  essem 

edas        "    edis  ederes         "   esses 

edat         "    edit  ederet          '•   esset 

edamus  "    edimus  ederemus   "   essemus 

edatis      "    editis  ederetis      "   essetis 

edant      "    edint  ederent       "   essent 

PERFECT.  PLUPERFECT. 

ederim,  etc.  edissem,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 

PRESENT.  FUTURE. 

es        or  ede  edito     or  esto 

edito      "    esto 

edite   "  este  edit5te  "    estate 

edunto 

*  The  short  forms  occur  in  the  same  places  in  which  the  forms  of  sum 
begin  with  es. 


IRREGULAR  VERBS.  145 

INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  esse  or  edere 
Perf.  edisse 
Fut.   esurus  (-a,  -um)  esse  esurus  (-a,  -um) 

PASSIVE  VOICE. 
Pres.  Ind.    editur        or^estur 
Imp.  Subj.   ederetur     a   essetur 
a.  Ambedo  has  participles  ambedens  and  ambesus. 
Comedo  has  comesus,  comesurus,  and  rare  comesftis ;  also, 
comedim,  comedis,  comedit. 

Adedo  and  exedo  have  adesus  and  exesus. 

248.  ire,  go  (Vi),  also  presents  some  of  the  irregu- 
larities of  unthematic  verbs. 

PRINCIPAL  PARTS. 

PRES.  IND.         PRES.  INFIN.          PERF.  IND.      PERF.  PART. 
eo  ire  ivi(ii)  itum 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT. 

eo  Imus 

is  itis 

it  eunt 

IMPERF.      FUT.        PERF.        PLUPERF.     FUT.  PERF. 

ibam,  etc.    ib5,  etc.    ivi  (ii),  etc.     iveram,  etc.    ivero,  etc. 
SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT.        IMPERF.         PERF.          PLUPERF. 

earn,  eas,  etc.       irem,  etc.        iverim,  etc.        ivissem,  etc. 
IMPERATIVE. 

PRESENT.  FUTURE. 

i        ite  ito        itote 

ito        eunto 


146  INFLECTION. 

INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLES. 

Pres.  Ire  iens  (euntis,  etc.) 
Perf.  Ivisse 

Fut    iturus  (-a,  -um)  esse  iturus  (-a,  -um) 

GERUND. 
eundi,  etc. 

0 

a.  In  compounds,  future  forms  in  earn,  ies,  iet,  etc.,  occasion- 
ally occur ;  and  the  tenses  from  the  perfect  stem  more   com- 
monly omit  the  v ;  as,  abil,  redieram,  etc. 

b.  Istisj  issem,  and  Isse,  occur  for  ivistis,  wissem,  wisse. 
(Cf.  228,  a.) 

DEFECTIVE   VERBS  (Verba  defected). 

249.  The  following  verbs  are  used  in  only  a  few  forms, 
and  are  therefore  called  DEFECTIVE  VERBS  :  — 

(1.)  odi,  hate,  though  a  perfect  form,  has  a  present 
meaning.  It  occurs  in  the  following  forms :  — 

INDICATIVE. 

Perf.  odi  or  osus  sum,  I  hate,  etc. 

Plup.  oderam,  I  hated,  etc. 

Fut.  Perf.     odero,  I  shall  hate,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Perf.     oderim,  etc.  Plup.     odissem,  etc. 

INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLES. 

Perf.     odisse  osus  (-a,  -um)  (active  sense) 

Fut.      osurus  (-a,  -um)  esse    osurus  (-a,  -um) 

a.   Odivit  occurs  (M.  Anton,  in  Cic.,  PhU.,  xiii.,  §42). 

(2.)  memini,  remember,  is  also  a  perfect  form  with  a 
present  meaning,  and  has  — 

INDICATIVE. 

Perf.  memini,  I  remember,  etc. 

Plup.  memineram,  I  remembered,  etc. 

Fut.  Perf.   meminero,  I  shall  remember,  etc. 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  147 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Perf.  meminerim,  etc.          Plup.  meminissem,  etc. 

IMPERATIVE. 
Fut.    memento  mementote 

INFINITIVE. 
meminisse 

(3.)  coepi,  have  begun,  has  — 

INDICATIVE. 
Perf.  coepi,  etc.  Plup.  coeperam,  etc.  Fut.  Perf.  coeperS,  etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Perf.  coeperim,  etc.  Plup.  coepissem,  etc. 

INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLES. 

Perf.  coepisse  coeptus  (-a,  -urn) 

Fut.    coepturus  (-a,  -urn)  esse     coepturus  (-a,  -urn) 

a.  With  a  passive  infinitive  the  deponent  forms  are  used : 
coeptus  est,  erat,  etc. 

(4.)  aio,  say,  has  — 

INDICATIVE. 

PRESENT.  IMPERFECT. 

aio  aiebam        aiebamus 

ais  aiebas          aiebatis 

ait    aiunt  aiebat          aiebant 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 

PRESENT. 

aias  aiat  aiant 

IMPERATIVE.  PARTICIPLE. 

ai  aiens 

a.  The  comic  writers  have  the  imperfect  forms  aibas,  aibat, 
aibant,  and  treat  them  as  dissyllables. 


148 


INFLECTION. 


(5.)  inquam,  say,  has  — 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  inquam  -quis        -quit    -quimus  -quitis  -quiunt 
Imp.  inquiebat  inquiebant 

inquibat 

Fut.  inquies  inquiet 

Perf.  inquisti  inquit 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres.    inquias        inquiat        inquiatis        inquiant 

IMPERATIVE. 
inque 
inquito 

(6.)  fan,  to  speak,  has  — 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  fatur 

Fut.    fabor  fabitur 

Perf.  fatus  est 

Plup.  fatus  eram 

IMPERATIVE. 
fare 


INFINITIVE. 
fan  (farier) 


PARTICIPLES. 
fans 

fatus  (-a,  -um) 
GERUNDIVE. 
fandus,  etc. 


GERUND. 
Gen.  fandi 
Abl.  fand5 

SUPINE. 
fatti 

(7.)  queo,  can,  has  — 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  queo          quis    quit      quimus   quitis 
Imp.   quibam  quibat 

Fut.    quibo 
Perf.  quivi  quivit 


queunt 
quibant 
quibunt 
quiverunt 


DEFECTIVE   VERBS.  149 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres.  queam,  etc. 

Imp.   quirem  quiret  qulrent 

Perf.  qulverit 

Plup.  quissent 

INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  quire  quiens  (queuntis,  etc.) 

Perf.  quivisse  (quisse) 

(8.)  nequeo,  cannot,  has  — 

INDICATIVE. 

Pres.  nequeo  nSnquis   nequit  -quimus  -quitis  -queunt 
Imp.  nequibam  -quibat  nequlbant 

Fut.  nequibunt 

Perf.  nequivi  -quivisti  -quivit  nequiverunt 

SUBJUNCTIVE. 
Pres.  nequeam,  etc. 
Imp.   nequirem,  etc. 
Plup.  nequlsset 

INFINITIVES.  PARTICIPLE. 

Pres.  nequire  nequiens  (nequeuntis,  etc.) 

Perf.  nequivisse 

a.  Passive  forms  of  these  two  verbs  are  occasionally  found 

with  a  passive  infinitive,  as  with  coepl  (see  above).     So  quitur, 

queatur,  queantur,  quitus,  etc.,  neqmtur  and  nequitum  estt  etc. 

NOTE.     It  will  be  seen  that  queo  and  nequeo  are  conjugated  just  like  eo. 

(9.)  quaes5,  beg,  has  — 

Ind.  Pres.  quaeso  quaesit  quaesumus 

Inf.  Pres.   quaesere 

(10.)  Isolated  forms  are  — 

a.  Imperative  have,  havete,  be  well,  blessed,  etc. 

haveto 
Infinitive     havere 


150  INFLECTION. 

b.  Ind.  Pres.   salveo,  I  am  well. 

••     Fut.    salvebis 
Imper.        salve,  salvete,  be  well,  hail ! 

salveta 
Infin.          salvere 

c.  Imper.        cedo,  cette,  say,  let  us  have,  etc. 

d.  Ind.  Pres.  confit,      defit,  deflunt,       Infit,  infiunt, 

accomplish.  fail.  begin. 

"     Fut.  confiet    defiet 

Subj.  Pres.  cdnfiat    defiat  interfiat  (Lucr.) 

Imper.        c5nfieret 

Infin.          confieri    defieri  effieri,  interfieri 

(Plautus) 

e.  Ind.  Pres.    ovat,  have  an  ovation.* 
Subj.  Pres.  ovet 

"     Imp.  ovaret 

Participle   ovans    ovatus    ovatums 
Gerund       ovandi 

IMPERSONAL  VERBS. 

250.  IMPERSONAL  verbs  are  such  as  are  used  only  in 
the  third  person  singular  and  without  a  personal  subject. 
The  most  common  are  the  following :  — 

a.  Ten  verbs  denoting  mental  or  moral  states :  — 
decet,  it  is  proper,  becoming.       oportet,  ought. 
libet,  it  is  pleasant.  piget,  be  disgusted. 

licet,  I,  you,  he,  etc.,  may.          paenitet,  repent 
liquet,  it  is  clear.  pudet,  be  ashamed. 

miseret,  pity.  taedet,  be  weary  of. 

*  An  ovation  among  the  Romans  was  a  sort  of  lesser  "triumph,"  in 
which  the  general  rode  on  horseback  instead  of  in  a  chariot,  as  in  the 
regular  ' '  triumph. ' ' 


PARTICLES.  151 

b.  Verbs  denoting  the  state  of  the  weather :  — 
fulget,       ^  lapidat,  it  rains  stones. 
fulgurat,  >  it  lightens,             ningit,  it  snows. 
fulminat,  )                               pluit,  it  rains. 

gelat,  it  freezes.  tonat,  it  thunders. 

grandinat,  it  hails.  vesperascit,      } 

'  f  evening     ap- 

Lucescit.     )  .,  vi.  advesperascit.  >  , 

.7T_        .     r rt  grows  light.  *  '  I       proaches. 

lUucescit, )  invesperascit,  ) 

c.  Also  the  following :  — 

accidit,  it  happens.  interest,  it  concerns. 

constat,  it  is  accepted,  be-  iuvat,  it  delights. 

lieved.  praestat,  it  is  better. 

contingit,  it  happens  favor-  placet,  it  pleases. 

ably.  refert,  it  concerns. 

convenit,  it  is  agreed  upon,  restat,  it  remains. 
displicet,  it  displeases. 

PARTICLES. 

NOTE.  Adverbs,  so  far  as  they  are  capable  of  inflection,  have  been 
treated  under  the  Comparison  of  Adjectives  (174-176).  Their  further 
treatment,  as  well  as  that  of  prepositions,  conjunctions,  and  interjections, 
belongs  partly  under  Syntax,  but  mostly  under  Word-Formation,  and  will 
be  found  there. 

For  adverbs  (derivation),  see  292,  293  ;  —  (syntax),  see  557. 

For  prepositions  (in  composition),  see  301  ff. 

For  "  (syntax),  see  428  ff.,  and  558  ff. 

For  conjunctions,  see  562  ff. 

For  interjections,  see  583. 

"WORD-FORMATION  (Derwatio  verborum). 

251.  (1.)  Words  are  either  SIMPLE  (simplicia)  or  COM- 
POUND (composita). 

(2.)  SIMPLE  words  are  such  as  contain  only  one  com- 
plete stem ;  as,  ludu-s,  game ;  reg-o,  rule ;  naturali-s,  nat- 
ural. 

(3.)  COMPOUND  words  are  such  as  contain  two  or  more 
complete  stems  ;  as,  magnanimus  (magno — |-  ammo-), 
high-souled  ;  intellego  (intei;  -f-  lego),  understand. 


152  WORD-FORMATION. 

252.  (1.)  Simple  words  are  divided  into  PRIMITIVES 
(^prlmitiva)  and  DERIVATIVES  (derlvata). 

(2.)  PRIMITIVE  words  are  such  as  are  formed  directly 
from  roots ;  as,  rex,  king,  */reg ;  cavus,  hollow,  VCGW  / 
died,  say,  */dic. 

(3.)  DERIVATIVE  words  are  such  as  are  formed  from 
noun,  adjective,  or  verb  stems;  as,  culpare,  to  blame, 
from  culpa  (stem  culpa-)  ;  felicitas,  happiness,  from 
felix  (stem  feflc-) ;  memorabilis,  remarkable,  from  me- 
mordre  (stem  memord-). 

a.  Words  derived  from  noun  or  adjective  stems  are  called 
DENOMINATIVES  (deTwmiTiatlva)  ;  those  from  verb  stems  are 
called  VERBALS  (verbalia). 

STRONG  AND  WEAK  FORMS  OF  ROOTS. 

253.  Many  roots  appear  in  two  forms,  a  strong  form 
and  a  weak  form.     Thus :  — 

Weak  Form.  Strong  Form. 

teg-ere,  to  cover.  tog-a,  a  toga. 

fug-ere,  to  flee.  fug-*,  I  have  fled, 

a.  There  are  a  few  instances  of  triple  root  forms.  Thus: 
fid-es,  faithfulness,  ful-us,  faithful,/0ed-ws,  treaty.  Cf.  do-num, 
gift,  with  dd-s  and  da-tiis. 

SIMPLE  WORDS. 

NOTE.  The  origin  of  various  Latin  words  is  very  obscure.  They  can- 
not be  referred  to  any  known  roots.  It  is,  of  course,  only  the  well  estab- 
lished, common  formations  that  can  profitably  be  treated  here. 

Words  without  Suffixes . 

264.  A  few  nouns  and  adjectives  are  formed  without 
any  suffix,*  the  root  itself  serving  as  a  stem.     Thus :  — 
cor,  n.,  heart ;  */cord  pes,  m.,  foot ;  *Jped 

lux,  f.,  light;  Vto  trux  (adj.),  savage;  */truc 

a.  The  unthematic  verbs  (see  239  ff.)  also  have  no  suffixes. 

b.  A  very  few  roots  are  reduplicated ;  as,  mar-mor,  n.,  mar- 
ble ;  tur-tur,  m.,  turtle-dove. 

*  For  the  definition  of  "  suffix,"  see  56. 


WORDS  WITH   SUFFIXES. 


153 


Words  with  Suffixes. 

255.  The  common  suffixes   as  they  appear  in  Latin 
words  are  as  follows  :  — 
(1.)  Forming  VOWEL  stems. 


o-,  a-, 

io-,  ia-, 

ro-,  ra-  (lo-,  la-,  ri-,  li-) 

i- 

mo-,  ma- 

to-,  ta-  (so-,  sa-) 

u- 

no-,  na- 

ti-  (si-) 

bo-,  ba- 

ni- 

tu-  (su-) 

co-,  ca- 

nu- 

tro-,  tra-,  tri-  (cf.  tr-,  below). 

do,  da- 

vo-,  va-  (uo-,  ua-) 

(2.)  Forming  CONSONANT  stems. 

Suffix.                         Nom.  Sing. 

Suffix.                       Nom.  Sing. 

{is-                     es 

ent-                 ens 

er-                  us;  er  (is) 

(  min-               men 

or-         us,  ur  ;  or  (6s) 

(  mon-              mo 

or-                 6s,  or 

(  tr-                   ter  (cf.  tr-, 

(  in-                 en;  6 
1  on-                     6 

~j  tor-                  tor       above). 
(  sor-                  sor 

a.  Suffixes  are  called  PRIMARY  when  applied  directly  to 
roots  to  form  the  stems  of  primitive  words,  SECONDARY  or 
DERIVATIVE  when  applied  to  simple  stems  to  make  the  stems  of 
derivative  words. 

NOTE.  To  help  the  pupil  in  understanding  the  growth  of  words,  his  at- 
tention should  be  called  to  groups  like  the  following  :  — 


rub-us,  m.,  a  bramble  bush. 

[rubi-cus.*~\ 

Rubic-o,  the  Rubicon  (Red  River), 

rubicun-dus,  ruddy. 

rubicundu-lus,  somewhat  ruddy. 


rub-e-r,  red,  ruddy. 
Bubr-ius,  a  man's  name. 
rubri-ca,  L,  red  earth. 
rubric-are,  to  color  red. 
Rubricd-tus,  a  river  in  Spain. 


o.<?  (or  is),  n.,  mouth. 

or-dre,  to  plead. 

ord-tor,  m.,  pleader,  orator. 

ordtor-ius,  belonging  to  an  orator. 

*  The  form  rubious  does  not  itself  occur,  but  is  presupposed  by  Rubied  in 
conjunction  with  words  like  bellicus  and  modicus,  from  bellum  and  modus. 


154 


WORD-FORMATION. 


NOUNS  AND  ADJECTIVES. 

256.  As  examples  of   primitive  nouns  and  adjectives 
formed  from  roots  with-  the   foregoing   suffixes  may  be 
given  the  following  :  — 
(1.)  VOWEL  stems :  — 

scrib-a,  m.,  a  scribe 

lud-us,  m.,  play 

cav-uSj  -a,  -um,  hollow 

ac-us,*  f.,  needle 

mor-bus,  m.,  disease 

pau-ci,  -ae,  -a,  few 

gen-ius,  m.,  guardian  spirit 

fa-ma,  f.,  report 

pug-nus,  m.,  fist 

mag-nus,  -a,  -um,  great 

lu-na,  f.,  moon 

pa-nis,  m.,  bread 

rub-e-r,  -ra,  -rum,  red 

sel-la,  f.,  seat 

ateus,  -a,  -um,  high 

vee-tis,  in.,  lever 


*/scrtb  -|-  a- 
Vlud  +  o- 
^cav  -f-  o-  and  Or 
^ac  -[-  w- 
*/?nor  -\-  bo- 
*/pau  -\-  co-  and  car 
io- 


ma- 
pug  -f-  no- 
no-  and  nor 
+  na- 
-\-  ni- 

\frub  -\-  ro-  and  ra- 
*/sed-\-  la- 
Val  -\-  to-  and  ta- 
ti- 
-  tu- 
su- 

\fcor  -\-  vo- 
Var  4-  vo- 


fruc-tus,  m.,  fruit 
ca-sus,  m.,  fall 
cor-vos,  m.,  raven 
ar-vom,  n.,  ploughed  field 
eq-uus,  m.,  horse  V  eq  -}-  uo- 

(2.)  COXSONAXT  stems :  — 

nubesj  genitive  nufcis,  f.,  cloud. 

*  The   primitive   adjectives  formed  with  the  suffix  U-  all  afterwards 
received  an  i  and  passed  over  into  the  third  declension.     Thus :  — 
ten-u-t's,  thin  */ten 

ping-u-is,  fat  *//>»n<7 

sud-v-is  (for  sttad-u-is),  sweet 
le-v-is  (for/e^-u-ts),  light 
t  Cf.  109. 


NOUNS  IN  -LUS,  -LA,  -LUM.  155 

later,     genitive  lat-er-is,  m.,  brick. 
gernis,        "         gen-er-is,  n.,  birth. 
nemus,       "         riem-or-is,  n.,  grove. 
fulgor,       "        fulg-or-is,  m.,  flash,  gleam. 
cardoj        "         card-iritis,  m.,  hinge. 
virgo,         "         virg-in-is,  f.,  maiden. 
nomen,       "         no-min-is,  n.,  name. 
sermoj        "         ser-mon-is,  m.,  speech. 
pater,         "        pa-tr-is,  m.,  father. 
"         da-tor^is,  m.,  giver. 


NOUNS  (AND  ADJECTIVES)  IN  -ZZT»,  -£4 

257.  The  suffixes  lo-,  la-,  form  a  series  of  nouns  and  a 
few  adjectives  from  primitive  o-  stems,  the  o  regularly 
becoming  u  before  the  1  of  the  suffix.     Thus  :  — 

dnu-lus,  m.,  ring.  iacib-lum,  n.,  javelin. 

ocur-lus,  m.,  eye.  cingu-lum,  n.,  girdle. 

rabu-la,  m.,  pettifogger.      iugu-lum,  n.,  collar-bone. 
tegu-la,  f.,  tile.  garru-lus,  -a,  -um,  talkative. 

NOTE.  Some  of  these  words  seem  to  have  been  formed  from  primitives 
once  actually  in  use,  but  early  supplanted  by  their  derivatives,  others  to 
have  been  built  upon  the  same  pattern  from  roots  or  stems  from  which  no 
corresponding1  primitive  was  ever  used.  This  second  process  came  about 
as  follows  :  There  are  a  few  words,  like  speculum,  n.,  mirror,  and  jigulus, 
m.,  potter,  which  seem  to  have  been  made  from  u-  stems  rather  than  O- 
stems.  Having  words  like  these  and  others  like  anulus  (from  the  stem 
ano-  -f-  the  suffix  lo-),  the  Romans  confounded  the  ending  of  the  stem 
with  the  suffix  and  transferred  -ulus,  as  a  new  ending,  to  other  kinds  of 
stems  (or  roots  serving  as  stems).  So  in  English,  having  inherited  from 
Latin  words  like  "  portable,"  in  which  the  "a"  belongs  to  the  stem,  we 
transfer  this  "a"  with  the  ending  and  form  "bearable"  from  "bear." 
This  process  is  called  FORMATION  BY  ANALOGY.  It  is  often  impossible  to 
tell  whether  a  given  Latin  word  was  formed  from  a  real  primitive  which 
afterwards  became  obsolete,  or  whether  it  simply  grew  by  analogy. 

258.  (1.)  The  same  suffixes  lo-,  la-  (ro,  ra-),  added 
to  a  series  of  stems  (mostly  obsolete)  in  bo-  and  co-,  be- 
came fused  with  these  syllables  into  the  endings  -bulum, 
-culum,  -brum,  -crum. 


156  WORD-FORMATION. 

(2.)  The  endings  -bulum,  -culum,  -brum,  -crum,  to 
which  for  convenience  may  be  added  -trum,  form  neuter 
nouns  denoting  MEANS  or  INSTRUMENT.  Thus :  — 

starbulum,  stall  cf.  stare,  to  stand     Vsta. 

turirbulum,  censer  "   tus  (turis),  frankincense. 

voca-bulum,  word  "   vocare,  to  call,  name. 

pd-culum,  cup  "  potare,  to  drink. 

vehi-culum,  vehicle  "   vehere,  to  draw. 

perls-culum,  trial,  danger          "   ex-periri,  to  try. 

crl-brum,  sieve  "   cernere,  to  sift,  distinguish. 

de-lu-brum,  shrine  "   luere,  to  wash,  atone  for. 

candela-brum,  candlestick  "  candere,  shine,  candela,  can- 
dle. 

sepul-crum,  tomb  "   sepelire,  to  bury. 

simula-crum,  image  "  simulare,  make  like,  pre- 

tend. 

ras-trum,  rake  Vrad  +  tro-  (primary). 

ard-trum,  plough  stem  of  arare  -f-  tro-  (second- 

ary). 

fere-trum,  bier  cf .  ferre,  to  carry. 

DlMINTTTIVES. 

259.  The  same  suffixes  lo-,  la-,  came  often  to  have  a 
diminutive  force,*  forming  a  large  number  of  nouns 
usually  of  the  same  gender  as  their  primitives.  They  also 
form  a  few  diminutive  adjectives.  Thus  :  — 

(1.)  From  stems  in  a-  or  o-,  the  stem  vowel  appearing 
as  u  generally,  but  as  o  after  e,  i,  and  v.  Thus  :  — 

riidu-lits,  a  little  nest,  from  nidus, 
cenu-la  "     cena,  dinner. 

oppidu-lum  "      oppidum,  town. 

alveo-lus  "     alveus,  a  hollow. 

filio-lus  "     filius,  son. 

*  Compare   the   English    "bookish"    and    "  bluisV     "sunny"    and 
"sonny." 


DIMINUTIVES.  157 

clavo-lus  *  from  cldvos,  a  nail. 

parvo-lus,  -a,  -um  "     parvos,  small. 

(2.)  From  dental  and  palatal  stems,  with  a  u  added 
by  analogy.  Thus  :  — 

aetat-u-la         from  aetas,  a  period  of  life. 
reg-u-lus  "     rex,  king. 

voou-la  "     vox,  voice. 

capit-u-lum       "     caput,  head. 

(3.)  If  a  liquid  precedes  the  stem  vowel  of  the  primi- 
tive (a  or  o)  that  vowel  is  dropped  and  the  liquid  assimi- 
lated, sometimes  with  slight  further  change.     Thus  :  — 
agellus  (for  ager-u-lus)    from  ager,  field. 
patella  "     patera,  saucer. 

capella  "     capra,  goat. 

piwlla  "    puera,  girl, 

(but  puer-u-lus)  "    ^mer,  boy. 

asellus  "     asinus,  ass. 

pulvilhis  "    pulvlnus,  cushion. 

corolla  "     corona,  wreath. 

columella  "     columna,  pillar. 

sigilla  (n.  pi.)  "     signum,  sign. 

bacillum  "     baculum,  staff. 

to6e^a  "     to^wZa,  tablet. 

ocellus  "     oculus,  eye. 

And  by  analogy 

lapillits  "     Zo^w,  stone. 

codicilhis  "     coc?ex,    a    writing    (origi- 

nally, bark). 

(4.)  In  the  case  of  diminutives  from  other  consonant 
stems  and  from  e-,  u-,  and  i-  steins,  the  endings  have  the 
forms,  -culus,  -cula,  -culum.f     Thus  :  — 
sermun-culus     from  sermo,  speech. 

*  The  O  -was  afterwards  weakened  to  u,  of  course,  as  in  the  primitives. 
Hence,  cldvulus,  parvulus,  etc. 

t  In  some  cases  because  an  intervening  stem  in  CO-  has  disappeared,  in 
others  through  growth  by  analogy. 


158  WORD-FORMATION. 

rumus-culus      from  rumor,  report. 
arbus-cula  "     arbor,  tree. 

bu-cula  "      bos,  cow. 

fios-cidus  "    fios,  flower. 

mater-cula,  "     mater,  mother. 

cor-culum  "     cor,  heart. 

die-cula  "     dies,  day. 

cani-cula  "     canis,  dog. 

arti-cvlus  "     artas,  limb. 

corni-cuLum         "     comu,  horn. 

a.  JZanun-culus,  from  ram,  frog;  furuiwulus,  from  /?Zr, 
thief ;  and  conventi-cuLum,  from  conventus,  meeting,  are  also 
found. 

£.  A  few  diminutives  are  further  formations,  as  :  — 

aculeus  from  ocws,  needle  [oow  -J- 

Zo  +  io-]. 

homuncio  (heside  homunculus)       "    homo,  man   [AomoTt 

-|-  co  -|-  io  -j-  ow-]. 

c.  There  are  also  a  few  double  formations ;  as :  — 
asellulus  aseUus  asinus. 

ADJECTIVES  IN  -z/5  AND  -1275. 

260.  The  same  suffixes  (lo-,  la-,  ro-,  ra-)  with  the  vowel 
weakened  and  thus  appearing  as  li-  *,  ri-,  form  a  series  of 
adjectives  denoting  various  ways  of  "  belonging  to." 
Thus:  — 

humi-lis,  low  from  humus, ,f  ground. 

agi-lis,  nimble  "     an  obsolete  agus.$ 

riobi-lis,  famous  as  if  from  nobus. 

utirlis,  useful  «  "     "     utus. 

naturd-lis,  natural         from  natura. 

*  There  was  a  marked  tendency  of  Latin  adjectives  to  pass  into  i-  stem 
forms  and  follow  the  third  declension.  Cf.  the  double  forms  in  155,  7, 
and  the  forms  in  256,  1,  footnote. 

t  For  the  weakening  of  the  stem  vowel  O  of  the  primitive  to  i  in  the 
derivative,  see  59. 

J  The  existence  of  a  form  agus  is  shown  by  the  compound  prod-igus 
beside  co-dgu-lum. 


ADJECTIVES  IN  -LIS,  -HIS;  -NUS,  -NA,  -NUM.      159 

luna-ris,  of  the  moon  from  luna. 

fide-lis,  faithful  "     fides, 

tribu-lis,*  of  the  same  tribe  "     tribus. 

hosti-lis,  hostile  "     hostis. 

261.  Words  like  agilis,  nobilis^  utilis,  came  to  be  re- 
garded as  verbals.    Then  the  endings  -bills  and  -tills  were 
added   to  verb-stems  to  make  adjectives  denoting  TEN- 
DENCY (more  often  passive  than  active).     Thus  :  — 

ama-bilis,  lovable.  terri-bllis,  terrible. 

fle-bilis,  lamentable,  tearful.       versa-tilis,  movable. 

a.  Plausi-bilis,  worthy  of  applause,  and  some  others,  seem  to 
be  from  noun-stems. 

262.  Through  the  transference  of  the  stem  vowel  to  the 
suffix   arose   the   endings   -aris,   -alls,   -elis,  -ills,  -ulis. 
Thus:  — 

milit-aris,  military  from  miles. 

popul-aris,  of  the  people  "    populus. 

nav-alis,  naval  "     navis. 

capit-alis,  deadly,  capital  "     caput. 

crud-elis,  cruel  "     crudus. 

vir-ilis,  manly  "     vir. 

ped-ulis,  of  the  feet  "    pes. 

a.  Such  adjectives  were  often  used  as  nouns  ;  as,  aed-ilis, 
m.,  an  aedile ;  ovtte,  n.,  a  sheep-fold  ;  and,  dropping  the  final 
vowel,  pugil,  m.,  boxer ;  animal,  n.,  living  thing. 

ADJECTIVES  IN  -NUB,  -NA9  -NUM. 

263.  The  suffixes  no-,  na-,  form  another  series  of  ad- 
jectives denoting  "  belonging  to."     Thus  :  — 

mag-nus,^  great  from  \fmag  +  no-  (primary). 

pater-nus,  of  a  father         "     pater, 
fagirnus,  beechen  "     fagus. 

*  The  long  quantity  of  the  penultimate  u,  i,  or  o,  in  such  derivatives  has 
never  been  satisfactorily  explained. 

t  This  suffix  was  originally  participial. 


160  WORD-FORMATION. 

Rorrws-nus,  Roman  from  Roma, 

collwius,  hilly  "      collis. 

marir-niis,  of  the  sea  "     mare. 

264.  The  suffixes  no-,  na-,  form  many  adjectives  of 
TIME.     Thus  :  — 

hodier-nus,  to-day's  cf.  hodie. 

diur-nus,  of  the  day  "   dies, 

hester-nus,  yesterday's  "   herl. 

crasti-mts,  to-morrow's  "   eras, 

aeter-nus,  everlasting  "   aevom. 
diuti-nus, 


matutir-nus,  of  the  morning  "   matuta. 

vespertl-nus,  of  the  evening  "   vesper. 

265.  Through  the  transference  of  stem  vowels  to  the 
suffix  -arose  the  endings  -anus,  -enus,  -Inus.     Thus:  — 

mont-anm,  mountainous  from  mons. 

GrracchninuSi  of  Gracchus. 

ser-enus,  calm. 

terr-e?ms,  earthy  "     terra. 

div-lnus,  god-like  "     dlvos. 

vlc-mus,  neighboring  "      vlcus. 

a.  With   these  adjectives    compare  nouns  like   membr-ana, 
har-ena,  reg-lna,  pistr-inum,  patr-onus,  ann-vna,  fort-una. 

b.  The  distributive  numerals  are  also  formed  in  -nus;    as, 
Vim,  senlj  etc.     (See  157,  158.) 

ADJECTIVES  IN  -cus,  -CA,  -CUM:. 

266.  Another  series  of  adjectives  is  formed  with  the 
suffixes  co-,  ca-,  which  added  to  different  kinds  of  stems 
give  the  endings  -acus,  -Icus,  ucus,  -icus,  -aticus.  Thus :  — 

paii-cus,  few  */pav. 

belli-cus,  warlike  from  bellum. 

civi-cus,  of  a  citizen  "     civis. 


ADJECTIVES  IN  -CUS,  -CA,  -CUM;  -IUS,  -IA,  -IUM.      161 

Galli-cus,  Gallic  from  Gallus. 

op-acus,  shady. 

pud-wusy  modest  cf.    pudor. 

cad-ueus,  ready  to  fall  "     cadere. 

patr-icus,  of  a  father  from  pater, 

venati-cus,  belonging  to  hunting          "     venatus. 
fluvi-aticus,  living  in  water  cf.  fluvius. 

a.  Through  the  Greek  come  words  like  — 

Socraticus,  of  Socrates. 

Iliacus,  of  Ilium,  Trojan. 

Corinthiacus,  of  Corinth. 

267.  A  suffix  c-  with  the  vowel  dropped  was  added  to 
a-  stems,  and  the  ending  -ax  was  then  transferred  to  other 
stems,  the  adjective  thus  formed  denoting  a  (generally 
faulty)  tendency.     Thus:  — 

pugn-a-x  (pugna-c-is),  inclined  to  fight. 
aud-a-x,  bold. 
ten-a-x,  tenacious. 

ADJECTIVES  IN  -ius,  -IA,  -IUM. 

268.  Another  series  of  adjectives  is  formed  with  the 
suffixes  io-,  ia-,  which,  added  to  different  kinds  of  steins, 
give  the  endings  -eus,  -cius,  -ceus,  -icius,  -aceus,  -icius. 
Such  adjectives  often  denote  MATERIAL.     Thus :  — 

reg-ius,  royal  from  rex. 

uxor-ius,  uxorious  "     uxor,  wife. 

Ephes-ius,  of  Ephesus. 

aur-eus  (for  aure-ius),  golden    "     aurum. 

triti-ceus,  wheaten  "     triticum. 

aedili-cius,  of  an  aedile  "     aedllis. 

patr-icius,  patrician  "    pater  (through  patricus). 

herba-cem,  grassy  "     herba. 

harundin-aceus,  like  a  reed  cf.  harundo. 

meretric-ius,  meretricious  from  meretrlx. 

triburwcius,  tribunicial  cf.  tribunus. 


162  WORD-FORMATION. 

orator-ius,  of  an  orator  from  orator, 

praetdr-ius,  praetorian  "    praetor, 

censor-lux,  of  a  censor  "     censor, 

a.  From  various  Greek  proper  names  are  formed  adjectives 
in  -eus  and  -aeus.  Thus  :  — 

Epicureus,  Epicurean. 
Smyrnaeus,  of  Smyrna. 

.  269.  The  ending  -arms  *  forms  adjectives  often  becom- 
ing nouns  and  denoting  TRADE  or  PROFESSION  (masculine), 
or  PLACE  (neuter).  (Cf.  276,  4.)  Thus :  — 

slc-arius,  m.,  assassin  from  slca,  dagger. 

advers-arius,  -a,  -urn,  opposed  "     adversus. 

legwn-arius,  belonging  to  the  legion        "     legw. 
argent-arius,  m.,  hanker  "     argentum. 

ordin-arius,  -a,  -urn,  customary  "     ordo. 

tumidttt-arius,  -a,  -um,  hurried  "     tumultus. 

aer-arium,  n.,  treasury  "     aes. 

NOUNS  OF  AGENCY. 

270.  Nouns  of  AGENCY  are  formed  from  roots  or  verb 
stems  with  the  suffixes  tor-,  s5r-,  rnasc.,  trio,  fern. 
Thus :  — 

da~tor,  giver  from  \fda  -\-  tor-  (primary)  ;  cf .  dare, 

ora-tor,  pleader,  orator         "     stem  ora-  -[-  tor-  (secondary)  ;  cf. 

orare. 
sua-sor,  adviser  "     ^suad-  -)-  sor-  (primary)  ;     cf. 

suadere. 

vic-trix,  conqueress  "     stem  vie-  -(-  trie- ;  cf.  vincere. 

vena-trix,  huntress  "     stem  vena-  -\-  trie-  ;  cf.  venarl. 

So  viaJor,  summoner,  through  an  obsolete  viare ;  sen-a-for, 
senator,  through  an  obsolete  senare. 

a.  The  suffix  appears  in  the  form  tr-  in  the  following  :  — 
fra-ter,  m.,  brother  (i.  e.}  supporter.  Cf.  fero). 
ma-ter,  f.,  mother.  pa-ter,  m.,  father. 

*  This  ending  seems  to  consist  of  ro-  -f-  i°-»  added  at  first  to  stems 
in  a-  and  then  transferred  with  the  a  to  other  stems.  (Cf.  first  example.) 


ABSTRACT  NOUNS. 


163 


271.  The  person  or  (personified)  thing  which  has  to  do 
with  something  is  indicated  by  the  following  suffixes  :  — 

(1.)  on-.     Thus:  — 

praec-o    (for  prae-voc-o),  m.,  herald,  Vvoc  -j-  on   (primary). 
centuriro,  m.,  centurion,  from  centuria,  company  of  one  hundred. 
(2.)  ti-,  dropping  the  vowel  and  forming  the  nominative 
in  -es.     Thus  :  — 

eques  (equi-tis),  m.,  horseman. 
ales  (ali-tis),  c.,  bird. 

a.  Some  of  these  nouns  were  originally  adjectives.  So  ales, 
(orig.)  winged. 

ABSTRACT  NOUNS. 

272.  Abstract  nouns  have  the  following  endings  :  — 

-ia  (-tia),  -ium  (-tium),  -ies  (-ties) 

-ta,  -tas,  -tus  ;  -g5,  -do  (-tudo) 

-la,  -15  (-ti5,  -sio)  ;  -tus,  -ura  (-tura,  -sura) 

NOTE.  Abstract  nouns  denoting  quality  are  formed  from  noun  and  ad- 
jective stems  ;  abstract  nouns  expressing  action,  from  verb  stems.  They 
tend,  however,  to  become  more  or  less  concrete,  and  the  abstract  meaning 
is  not  always  easy  to  trace.  The  English  "  relation  "  used  for  "relative  " 
is  an  example  of  this  tendency  of  abstracts  to  become  concrete. 

273.  Abstract  nouns   denoting   QUALITY  are  formed 
with  the  following  suffixes  :  — 

(1.)  ia-,  fern.  ;  io-,  neuter.     Thus  :  — 

audac-ia,  boldness 

custod-ia,  guard 

mendac-ium,  lie 

mllit-ia,  military  service 

hospit-ium,  hospitality 
a.   Through  forms  like  militia  and  hospitium,  the  endings 
-tia   and   -tium   were   transferred    to   other  kinds  of   stems. 
Thus:  — 

amici-tia,  friendship  from  amicus. 

duri-tia,  sternness  "     durus,  hard. 


from  audax. 
"     custos. 
"     mendax. 
"     miles. 
"     hospes. 


servi-tium,  slavery 


servos. 


OF  THK 


UNIVERSITY 


164  WORD-FORMATION. 

b.  Collateral  forms  in  -ies  and  -ties  in  the  fifth  declension 
appear  beside  the  forms  in  -ia  and  -tia  of  the  first.  Thus  :  — 

materies  beside  materia,  material. 

durities       "       duritia,  hardness. 
(2.)  ta-,  tat-,*  tut-.*     Thus  :  — 
iuven-ta,  f.,  youth  from  iuvenis. 

senec-ta,  f.,  old  age  "     senex. 

cwi-tas,  f.,  citizenship,  state  "     clvis. 

boni-tas,  f.,  goodness  "     bonus, 

pie-tas,  f.,  filial  affection,  loyalty          "    plus, 
maies-tas,  f.,  majesty  "    maior(-ius),  greater. 

hones-tas,  f.,  respectability  "     honor,  office,  honor. 

vir-tus,  f.,  manliness,  bravery,  virtue   "     vir. 
senec-tus,  f.,  old  age  "     senex. 

serviJus,  f.,  slavery  "     servos, 

a.  The  stem  vowel  is  dropped  in  liber-tas,  freedom,  from 
liber. 

(3.)  gin-  and  din-.f  The  latter  is  especially  common 
as  an  addition  to  stems  in  tu-,  giving  the  ending  -tud5. 
Thus :  — 

imcu-go,  f.,  image. 

ori-go,  f.,  origin  cf.  orirl. 

aeru-gd,  f .,  copper-rust. 

vir-ago,  f.,  virago  from  vir  (by  analogy). 

torpe-do,  f.,  sluggishness      cf.  torpere. 

cupl-do,  f.,  desire  "  cupere. 

didce-do,  f.,  sweetness  "  dulcis. 

magni-tudo,  f .,  size  from  niagnus. 

forti-tudo,  f.,  endurance          "     fortis. 

habi-tudo,$  f.,  custom. 

vale-tudo,  f.,  health. 

*  These  two  suffixes  consist  of  ti-  (with  vowel  dropped)  added  to  real 
or  supposed  stems  in  ta-  and  tu-. 

t  I.  e.,  go-  +  in-,  and  do-  -f-  in-. 

J  Habitus  (gen.  -us)  is  more  common,  and  suggests  the  type  on  which  the 
words  in  -tudo  were  built. 


ABSTRACT   NOUNS.  165 

274.  Abstracts  denoting  the  NAME  OF  AN  ACTION  are 
formed  with  the  following  suffixes :  — 

(1.)  la-  (added  to  verb  stems  in  e-,  and  the  ending  -ela 
then  transferred  to  other  stems).    Thus :  — 
cande-la,  f.,  candle  cf.  candere. 

tute-la,  f.,  protection  "  tueri. 

client-ela,  f.,  clientship          "  clwns. 
quer-ella,  f.,  complaint  "  querl. 

loqu-ella,  f.,  speech  "  loqui. 

(2.)  idn-  (ti5n-,  sion-).*     Thus :  — 
leg-id,  f.,  gathering,  legion  cf.  legere. 

msit-io,  f.,  grafting  "   Inserere,  insitus. 

quaest-w,  f.,  investigation  "   quaerere. 

mdns-id,  f.,  a  remaining  "   manere,  mdnsum. 

cogitdt-io,  f.,  reflection  "  cogitare,  cogitatus. 

larglt-w,  f.,  bestowal  of  a  largess    "   largiri,  largltum. 
(3.)  tu-.     Thus:- 

mo-tus,  m.,  motion  (contracted  for  movitus)     cf.  movere. 
comita-tw,  m.,  retinue  "    comitdri. 

equita-tus,  m.,  cavalry  "    equitdre. 

moni-tus,  m.,  warning  "   monere. 

anheli-tus,  m.,  panting  "   anheldre. 

(4.)  ra-  (added  to  stems  in  u-,  and  thus  producing  the 
endings  -ura,  -tura,  -sura).     Thus :  — 

fig-ura,  f.,  shape  cf .  finger  e. 

plc-tura,  f.,  painting  "  pingere. 

u-siira,  f.,  use,  enjoyment  of  a  thing      "   utl. 
cen-surafi  censorship. 
prae-tura,  praetorship. 

• 

NOUNS  WITH  VARIOUS  ENDINGS. 

275.  ACT,  MEANS,  or  RESULT  is  denoted  by  the  suffixes 

*  These  two  suffixes  seem  to  be  made  by  adding  ion-  to  the  stems  of 
perfect  participles. 

t  Often  thus  coming  to  denote  an  office. 


166  WORB-FORMATION. 

min-  (oftener  increased  to  mentd-)  and  mSnio-,*  neuter, 
and  mSnia-,*  feminine.     Thus :  — 

teg^men,    ^ 

tegu-men,  >  covering  cf.  tegere. 

tegi-men,  ) 

certa-men,  strife,  contest  "  certdre. 

frag-mentum,  fragment  "  frangere. 

orna-mentum,  ornament  "  ornare. 

argit-mentum,  argument  "  arguere. 

momf^mentum,  memorial  "  moriere. 

condi-mentum,  seasoning  "  condire. 

testirmonium,  testimony. 

querirtrionia,  complaint. 

276.  Nouns  denoting  PLACE  are  formed  with  the  fol- 
lowing suffixes :  to-  (eto-),  ina-  (trina-,  trino-),  fli-, 
ario-,  torio-  (sorio-). 

(1.)  to-,  eto-  denote  the  place  where  something  GROWS 

IN  ABUNDANCE.       Thus  :  — 

arbus-tum,  orchard  from  arbor, 

qiierc-etum,  oak-grove  cf.  quercus. 

vin-etum,  vineyard  "   vinum. 

(2.)  ina-,  trina-,  trmo-  denote  the  place  where  some- 
thing is  DONE.  Thus  :  — 

cul-ina,  kitchen.  tdns-trina,  barber-shop. 

salrlnae,  salt  mines.  pis-trinum^  treadmill. 

a.  Nouns  in  -ina  also  often  denote  a  SCIENCE,  and  many  have 
other  meanings  ;  as,  discipl-ina,  teaching  ;  medic-lna,  medicine ; 
reg-ma,  queen  ;  ru-^na,  downfall,  etc. 

(3:)  Hi-  denotes  especially  the  PLACE  where  ANIMALS 

*  The  origin  and  development  of  these  suffixes,  as  of  several  to  be  men- 
tioned later  (6to-,  ina-,  trina-,  Ivo-,  OBO-,  olento-,  bundo-,  cundo, 
etc.),  are  partly  too  little  known,  partly  too  complicated,  for  explanation  in 
a  school  grammar.  It  seems  best,  therefore,  simply  to  chronicle  them  as 
they  appear. 


PATKONYMICS.  167 

are  kept.    These  nouns  are  the  neuters  of  adjectives.   (See 
260-262.)     Thus  :  — 

ov-ile,  sheepfold  from  ovis. 

cub-lie,  chamber. 

(4.)  ario-  forms  nouns  which  are  really  the  neuter  of 
adjectives  in  -arms.     (See  269.)     Thus :  — 
columb-arium,  dove-cote.       tepid-arium,  room  for  a  warm  bath. 

(5.)  torio-  (sorio)  forms  nouns  which  are  really  the 
neuter  of  adjectives  in  -torius  (-sorius).  (See  268.) 
Thus :  — 

prae-torium,  general's  tent.  dever-sorium,  inn. 

PATRONYMICS. 

277.  PATKONYMICS  (patronymica),  that  is,  nouns  de- 
noting descent,  from  the  name  of  the  father  or  other  an- 
cestor, are  formed  with  the  following  (Greek)   endings : 
-ides  (fern,  -is),  -ides  (fern,  -eis),  -iades  (fern,  -ias),  and 
-ades. 

a.  The  masculine  patronymics  (L  e.9  those  in  -des)  are  of  the 
first  declension ;  the  f eminines  (i.  e.,  those  in  -as  or  -is)  are  of 
the  third. 

b.  There  are  also  a  few  feminines  of  the  first  declension  in 
-ine  or  -ione.     Thus :  — 

Nerlrie,      daughter  of  Nereus. 
Acriswrie,          "        "  Acrisius. 

278.  (1.)  -ides  (f.  -is)  is  used  with  names  ending  in 
-us  (except  -ius),  -or,  and  -s  preceded  by  a  consonant ; 
also  with  those  in  -on  which  have  the  stem  vowel  short. 
Thus :  — 

Priamides  from  Priamus. 

Tantalis  "     Tantalus. 

Danais  "     Danaus. 

Agenorides  "     Agenor. 

Cecropides  "     Cecrops. 

Agamemnonides     "     Agamemnon,  stem  Agamemnon. 


168  WORD-FORMATION. 

(2.)  -Ides  (f.  -eis)  is  used  with  names  ending  in  -ens 
or  -cles.  Thus :  — 

Atrldes  from  Atreus. 

Heraclldes  "     Heracles. 

Nereis  "     Nlreus. 

(3.)  -iades  (f.  -ias)  is  used  with  names  in  -ius,  with 
many  in  -es  or  -o,  after  the  dropping  of  these  endings, 
and  with  names  in  -on  if  the  stem  vowel  is  long.  Thus :  — 

Thestiades  \ 

Thestias      \  tram  Ttortiu,. 

Anchisiades  "  Anchises. 

Sclpiades  "  Scipio. 

Telamoniades  "  Telanion,  stem  Telamon-. 

So  also  Atlantiades  "  Atlas. 

(4.)  -ades  is  used  with  most  names  in  -as  or  -es 
Thus :  — 

Aeneades  from  Aeneas.* 

Hippotades  '•     Hippotes. 

GENTILE  ADJECTIVES. 

279.  GENTILE  adjectives  (gentilicia),  that  is,  words 
denoting  the  place  or  country  to  which  some  one  belongs, 
are  formed  with  the  following  suffixes :  co-,  ca- ;  io-,  ia- ; 
no-,  na- ;  ti- ;  ensi-.  Thus  :  — 

Gatti-cus,  Gallic,  a  Gaul.  Fiderias  (-atis),  of  Fidenae. 

Ephes-ius,  Ephesian.  Arpinas  (-atis),  of  Arpinum. 

Roma-niLS,  Roman.  Samriis  (-it is),  of  Samnium. 

Tuscul-anus,  Tusculan.  Cann-ensis,  of  Cannae. 

Neapolit-anus,  of  Naples.  Utic-ensis,  of  Utica. 

Praenest-inus,  of  Praeneste.       Atheni^emis,  of  Athens. 

Lat-inus,  Latin.  Sulnwnr3nsis,  of  Sulmo. 

Amer-Znus,  of  Ameria.  Vei3ns,  of  Veil. 

*  The  change  of  vowel  from  §  in  the  primitive  to  e  in  the  patronymic 
is  due  to  a  secondary  form,  Aeneas, 


PARTICIPIAL   ADJECTIVES.  169 

NOTE.  No  distinct  rule  can  be  given  as  to  what  sort  of  stems  these 
different  endings  are  used  with.  But  stems  in  a-  usually  have  -anus, 
those  in  ia-  or  io-,  Inus,  others  in  o-,  -icus  ;  -ius  is  used  mostly  with 
Greek  words,  and  consonant  stems  generally  have  -ensis.  Other  forms 
also  are  used  ;  as,  Afer,  African ;  Siculus,  Sicilian.  Cf .  also  the  adjec- 
tives like  Smyrnaeus  derived  through  the  Greek  (268,  a). 

PARTICIPIAL  ADJECTIVES. 

280.  Adjectives  with    the   participial  meaning   "pro- 
vided with "  are  formed  with  the  suffixes  to-,  ta-,  which 
added   to   different    kinds    of    stems    give   the    endings 
-atus,  -Itus,  -utus.     Thus  :  — 

robus-tus,  strong  from  robur. 

hones-tus,  honorable      "  honor. 

toga-tus  "  toga,  a  toga. 

tum-tus  "  turris,  tower. 

cornu-tus  "  cornu,  horn. 

aur-atus  "  aurum,  gold,  through  aurare. 

cord-atus  "  cor,  heart,  as  if  through  cordare. 

mell-ltus  u  mel,  honey. 

av-ltus  *'  avos  (-us),  grandfather. 

nas-utus  "  nasus,  nose. 

NOTE.  Aegrdtus,  sick,  suggests  with  patronus,  annona,  etc.,  a  lost  series 
of  verb  stems  in  o-. 

281.  Adjectives  with  about  the  meaning  of  present  par- 
ticiples are  formed  with  the  suffixes  bundo-  and  cundo-. 
Thus :  — 

fa-cundus,  eloquent.  mlra-bundus,  wondering. 

iu-cundus,  pleasant.  vere-cundus,  modest. 

irorcundus,  wrathful.  mori-bundus,  dying. 

282.  The  suffixes  mo-,  ma-,  no-,  na-,  alone  and  com- 
bined together,  form  several  adjectives  and  nouns  which 
were  originally  participles.     Thus  :  — 

al-mus,  -a,  -um,  kindly  cf.  alere,  to  raise,  nourish. 

fa-ma,  f.,  report  "   fart,  to  speak. 

mag-nus,  -a,  -um,  great. 


170  WORD-FORMATION. 

som-nus,  m.,  sleep  (for  sop-nits  ;  cf.  soplre). 

fe-mina,  f.,  woman. 

ter-minus,  m.,  boundary. 

alurmnus,  ~a,  -um,  cherished ;  hence,  as  a  noun,  foster-child. 

a.  The  same  combined  suffix  is  found  in  the  second  person 
plural  of  passive  and  deponent  verbs,  —  regi^nini^  mone-minl, 
amabH-mirii,  —  and  in  the  old  imperative  forms  like  horta~mirio. 
(See  227,  f.) 

ADJECTIVES  WITH  VARIOUS  EXDINGS. 

283.  Various  adjectives  are  formed  with  the  suffixes 
do-,  da-,  uo-,  ua-,  ivo-,  iva-.     Thus :  — 

turbirdus,  disordered  from  turba. 

vlvi-dus,  lively. 

frlgirdus,  cold  cf .  frigus. 

avi-dus,  greedy. 

herbirdus,  grassy  from  herba. 

lepirdus,  charming  cf.  lepor. 

ann-uus,  yearly  from  annus. 

ruit'ivus,  native  cf.  natus. 

aest-wus,  of  summer  "  aestas. 

capt-ivus,  captive  "  captus. 

284.  Another  series  of  adjectives  is  formed  with  the 
suffixes   bri-,  cri-,  tri-,   the   last   often   denoting  PLACE. 
Thus  :  — 

cele-ber,  famous.  medio-cris,  mediocre. 

lugurbris,  mournful.  eques-tris,  equestrian  (for 

salu-bris,  healthful.  equet-tris). 

mulie-bris.  womanish.  campes-tris,  level. 

volurcer,  winged.  terres-tris,  earthy. 

Cf.  also  creber,  -bra,  -brum,  frequent. 

285.  Adjectives  denoting  FULLNESS  are  formed  with 
the  suffixes  oso-,  olent-,  olento-.     Thus  :  — 


ADJECTIVES.  —  VERBS.  171 

glori^dsus  from  gloria,  glory. 

perlcul-dsus  "  perlculum,  danger. 

gener-osus  "  genus,  birth. 

aestit-osus  "  aestus,  heat,  tide. 

op-ulens  *  "  [ops],  wealth. 

vi-olens  "  vis,  force. 

fraud-ulentus  *  "  fraus,  treachery. 

vm-olentus  "  vmum,  wine. 

286.  Adjectives  denoting  various  relations  of  NUMBEB 
are  formed  as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  MULTIPLICATIVE®  denote  how  many  fold,  and  end  in 
-plex.  Thus :  — 

simplex,  single.  qumcuplex,  fivefold. 

duplex,  double,  twofold.  centuplex,  a  hundredfold. 

(2.)  PROPORTIONALS  denote  how  many  times  one  thing  is 
greater  than  another,  and  end  in  -plus.  Thus  :  — 

duplus,  twice  as  great.       octitplus,  eight  times  as  great. 
(3.)  TEMPORALS   denote  how  many  years  old,  and  end  in 
-Imus.     Thus  :  — 

blmus,  two  years  old.  quadrimus,  four  years  old. 

NOTE.  Adjectives  in  -arius,  from  the  distributives,  denote  the  number 
of  parts  of  which  a  thing  consists,  but  they  belong  chiefly  to  post-classical 
usage.  Thus  :  quaterndrius,  of  four  parts. 

VERBS. 

287.  -are,  -ere,  -Sre,  -ire,  were  treated  by  the  Romans 
as  derivative  endings  to  form  many  verbs  from  noun  and 
adjective  stems.    The  stem-vowel  of  the  noun  or  adjective, 
unless  u,  disappears.     Thus  :  — 

culparerf  to  blame  from  culpa,  fault. 

doriare,  to  give  "     donum,  gift. 

*  o  of  the  suffix  weakened  to  U. 

t  The  verbs  in  -are  must  have  started  from  noun  stems  in  a-,  and  those 
in  -ire  from  stems  in  i-,  and  these  endings  must  then  have  been  transferred 
to  other  stems  by  analogy. 


172  WORD-FORMATION. 

laud  a  re,  to  praise  from  laus,  praise. 

aestuare,  to  seethe,  boil      "  aestus,  heat. 

albere,  to  be  white  "  albus,  white. 

lucere,  to  shine  "  lux,  light. 

metuere,  to  fear  "  metus,  fear. 

statuere,  to  fix  "  status,  position. 

pumre,  to  punish  "  poena,  punishment. 

servlre,  to  be  a  slave  "  servos  (-MS),  slave. 

fl/ure.  to  end  "  finis,  end. 

custodlre,  to  guard  "  cilstos,  guard. 

NOTE.  The  verbs  with  consonant  stems  (third  conjugation),  and  many 
of  the  short  verbs  of  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  conjugations,  were  in- 
herited by  the  Romans  from  the  parent  language,  and  these  verbs  fur- 
nished the  pattern  for  the  verbs  treated  in  287.  Such  inherited  verbs  are 
regere,  amdre,  monere,  audire.  Their  development  is  too  complicated  to  be 
explained  in  a  school  grammar.  Many  of  the  simple  nouns  and  adjectives 
treated  above  were  of  course  also  inherited  already  formed  from  the  parent 
language,  as  can  be  seen  by  comparing  the  corresponding  words  in  Greek 
and  Sanskrit.  Their  growth,  however,  is  much  simpler  and  easier  to  trace 
than  that  of  the  inherited  verbs. 

a.  The  denominatives  of  the  first  conjugation  are  generally 
transitive  ;  those  of  the  second  are  almost  invariably  intransitive. 
Cf.  the  examples.     Those  in  the  third  conjugation  are  all  from 
u-  stems. 

b.  Pairs  of  verbs  are  sometimes  found,  one  usually  from  the 
weak  form  of  a  root  and  intransitive,  the  other  from  the  strong 
form  and  transitive  (causative  verbs,  verba,  caitsatwa) .   Thus :  — 

placere,  to  please        placare,  to  appease. 
sedere,  to  sit  sedare,  to  settle. 

FREQUENTATIVE  AND  INTENSIVE  VERBS. 

288.  (1.)  FREQUENT  ATI  VES  (frequentdtiva),  that  is, 
verbs  denoting  a  repetition  of  the  action  of  their  primitives, 
and  INTENSIVES  (intenslvcf),  or  verbs  denoting  a  forcible 
action,  are  formed  from  perfect  participles  by  substituting 
the  characteristic  a  for  the  stem  voweL  Thus  :  — 


FREQUENT  ATI  VES,    INTENSIVES,   AND   INCEPTIVES.      173 

adiutare     from  adiuvare  (adiutus). 
dictare  "     dicer e  (dictus). 

quassare         "     quatere  (quassus). 
habitare          "     habere  (habitus), 
dormltare       "     dor  mire  (dormitum). 
(2.)    From   forms  like  habitare^  the  apparent  ending 
-itare  spread  to  various  present  stems,  and  also  took  the 
place  of  the  regular  formation  from  verbs  of  the  first  con- 
jugation.    Thus  :  — 

agitare      from  agere.  minitari  from  minari. 

noscitare      "     noscere.        rogitare      "     rogare. 
clamitare     "     cldmdre. 
a.   Videre,  see,  makes  visere  through  visus. 
(3.)  Double  formations  occur.     Thus:  — 

currere  cursare  cursitare. 

dicere  dictare  dictitare. 

venire  (ad)-ventare  ventitare. 

(4.)  Another  kind  of  intensives  is  formed  with  the 
ending  -esso,  rarely  -isso,  in  the  third  conjugation,  with 
the  perfect  and  perfect  participle  stems  generally  made 
after  the  analogy  of  the  fourth,  if  used  at  all.  Thus  :  — 

lacesso     lacessere     lacesswi  lacessltus. 

incesso     incessere    incesslvl  or  incessl 
petisso    petissere     

a.  Frequentatives  are  also  called  ITERATIVES  (iteratwa) ,  a,ud 
the  intensives  in  -esso  (-isso)  are  also  called  MEDITATIVES 
(meditatwa). 

INCEPTIVE  VERBS. 

289.  INCEPTIVES  or  INCHOATIVES  (inceptwa  or  incoh- 
atlvd),  that  is,  verbs  which  denote  the  beginning  of  an 
action,  are  formed  by  adding  -sco  to  a  verb  stem,  or  by 
analogy,  to  noun  stems.  They  are  intransitive,  of  the 
third  conjugation.  (Cf.  235,  236,  237.)  Thus :  — 


174  WORD-FORMATION. 

labascere       from  labare.  obdormlscere  from  obdormlre. 

calescere           "     calere.  puerascere  "    puer. 

tremescere        "     tremere.  iuvenescere  "     invents, 

ingemiscere      "     ingemere.  durescere  "     durus. 

DESIDERATTVE  AND  DIMINUTIVE  VERBS. 

290.  DESIDERATIVES  (desiderativa)  express  a  desire 
to  do  something.     They  end  in  -turio  (-surio).     Thus :  — 

empturio        empturlre  

parturid        parturire        parturlvl  (-ii)        parturitum. 

esurio  esurire  esuritum 

NOTE.     Others  are  rare  and  chiefly  confined  to  the  comic  poets. 

291.  DIMINUTIVE   verbs    (deminutwa)    are    formed 
from  diminutive   noun-forms  in   -illus  by  substituting  a 
for  the  stem  vowel.     Thus :  cantillare,  cojiscrlbilldre. 

NOTE.     The  diminutive  verbs  are  very  few  in  number. 

DERIVATION  OF  ADVERBS. 

292.  Besides  the  adverbs  in  -e  and  -ter  formed  and 
compared  from  adjectives,  given  under  174  ff.,  the  fol- 
lowing should  be  noticed  :  — 

(1.)  Numeral  adverbs  are  formed  from  numbers  above 
four  by  the  ending  -ies.     (Cf .  157  and  158.)      Thus :  — 
qui?iquies,  five  times.  decies,  ten  times. 

(2.)  Certain  adverbs  of  manner  are  formed  with  the 
ending   -atim  as  if   accusatives   of   the  third-declensipn 
nouns  made  from  the  perfect  participle  stems  of  verbs  of 
the  first  conjugation.     Thus :  — 
gradatim,  by  degrees,  slowly,  as  if  through  gradari,  gradatus  ; 

cf.  gradi,  to  walk. 
gregatim,  in  crowds.     Compare  con-gregare,  to  gather  into  a 

flock. 

(3.)  A  few  adverbs  denoting  origin  or  manner  end  in 
-itus.     Thus :  — 


ADVERBS.  —  COMPOUND   WORDS.  175 

divinitus,  from  the  gods. 
funditus,  from  the  bottom,  utterly. 
radtefous,  root  and  branch. 

293.  All  other  adverbs  were  originally  oblique  cases  of 
nouns,  adjectives,  or  pronouns,  and  are  — 

(1.)  Also  used  as  oblique  cases.     Thus  :  — 

multd,  much.  continue,  immediately. 

tantum,  so  much  and  no  more,  only. 
For  others,  see  187. 

(2.)  Recognizable  as  case  forms,  though  no  longer 
used  as  such.  Thus  :  — 

partim,  partly.  secus,  otherwise. 

(3.)  More  or  less  disguised.     Thus  :  — 
hinc,  hence.  illuc,  thither. 

ad-eo*  to  such  a  degree,     corn-minus,*  at  close  quarters. 
quasi,*  as  it  were. 

COMPOUND  WORDS. 

294.  Almost  all  Latin  compounds  consist  of  two  parts 
only,  the  second  part  forming  what  may  be  called  the 
basis  of  the  meaning,  and  the  first  part  indicating  some 
modification  therein. 

Thus,  in  decemviri,  the  basis  of  meaning  is  viri,  men,  and 
this  is  limited  by  decem  to  a  body  of  ten  men  ;  in  funambulus, 
the  basis  of  meaning  is  "  a  walker,"  and  this  is  limited  in  the 
compound  to  a  rope-walker ;  in  vorsipellis,  the  basis  of  meaning, 
"  skin,"  is  limited  by  the  notion  of  turning  or  changing,  so  that 
the  compound  means  "  changeable  "  (cf.  English  "  turn-coat ")  ; 
in  persuaded,  the  basis  of  meaning,  "  advise,"  is  modified  so 
as  to  mean  u  advise  through  to  the  end  "  (i.  e.,  carry  one's  point 
by  advice,  persuade). 

*  Words  like  these  are  of  course  compounds,  each  part  being  origi- 
nally a  case  form.  They  are  included  here  for  the  convenience  of  the 
learner. 


176  WORD-FORMATION. 

Nouns  and  Adjectives. 

295.  (1.)  The  first  part  of  a  compound  noun  or  ad- 
jective may  be  a  noun,  adjective,  or  participle  stem,  or 
a  numeral,  a  preposition,  or  one  of  a  small  number  of  par- 
ticles called  prefixes. 

(2.)  The  second  part  of  a  compound  noun  or  adjective 
may  be  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  a  participle,  but  it  is  far 
more  commonly  a  noun  or  adjective  form  which  does  not 
occur  as  a  simple  word.  Thus :  — 

magnanimus,  great-souled  magno-  -\-  animus. 

vorsipellis,  changeable  vorso-  -j-  pellis. 

suaviloquens,  sweet-speaking      suavi-  -\-  loquens. 

funambulus,  rope-walker  funi-  -\-  [ambulus]. 

sacrttegus,  sacrilegious  sacro-  -\-  [legus~\. 

decemviri,  decemvirs  decem  -f-  viri. 

interrex,  interrex  *  inter  -\-  rex. 

innatus,  inborn  in  (prep.)  -|-  natus. 

imberbis,  beardless  in-  (neg.  prefix)  and  barba. 

nefds,  wrong  ne  -\-fas. 

subliistris,  rather  light  sub  -\-  [lustris~\. 

pergratus,  very  pleasing  per  -\-  gratus. 

a.  Compound  adjectives,  which,  like  magnanimus,  indicate 
the  possession  of  some  quality,  are  called  POSSESSIVES.     The 
second   part   of   these   compounds   is   almost   always   a   noun. 
Thus :  multangulus,  many-cornered  ;  quadrupes,  four-footed.| 

b.  Other  compound  adjectives  and  all  compound  nouns  are 
sometimes  distinguished  from  the  possessives  by  the  name  DE- 
TERMINATIVES, because  their  first  part  determines  how  the  mean- 
ing of  the  second  part  is  to  be  applied. 

NOTE.  In  nouns  and  adjectives  compounded  with  prepositions  or  pre- 
fixes, in  is  much  more  often  a  negative  prefix  than  a  preposition,  sub  has  a 
diminutive  force,  per  and  (less  commonly)  prae  an  intensive  force,  as  in  the 
examples  above. 

*  J.  e.,  an  officer  who  rules  between  the  death  of  one  king  and  the  ac- 
cession of  the  next. 

t  Such  compounds  in  English  generally  end  in  -ed,  as  in  the  translations 
of  the  examples  above  ;  but  compare  words  like  bald-head,  lap-streak. 


COMPOUND   NOUNS   AND   ADJECTIVES.  177 

296.  (1.)  When  the  first  part  of  a  compound  noun  or 
adjective  is  a  noun,  adjective,  or  participle  stem  ending  in 
a  vowel,  this  vowel  is  usually  dropped  if  the  second  part 
begins  with  a  vowel,  as  in  magnanimus  and  funambulus, 
above. 

(2.)  When  the  second  part  begins  with  a  consonant, 
and  occasionally  when  it  begins  with  a  vowel,  the  stem 
vowel  of  the  first  part  is  retained  but  generally  weakened 
to  i,  as  in  sacrilegus  above,  or  in  tubicen,  trumpeter  (tu- 
ba— |-  [ceft]),  arcitenenS)  bow-holding  (arcu — |-  tenens). 
a.  Sometimes  the  stem  vowel  of  the  first  part  is  only  flattened 
to  O  or  u,  especially  in  compounds  of  early  date.  Thus :  — 

viocurus,  overseer  of  roads      via-  -f-  [cunts']. 

Troiugena,  Trojan-born  Troia-  -\-  [gena]. 

quadrupes,  four-footed  quadro-  -\-  pes. 

297.  (1.)  If   the  first  stem   ends  in   a  consonant  it 
suffers  in  early  compounds  only  the  euphonic  changes  re- 
quired by  the  rules  in  65  ff.,  as  index  for  iusdex,  judge 
(i.  e.)  right-speaker). 

(2.)  Generally,  however,  consonant  stems  assume  a 
vowel  after  the  analogy  of  the  other  stems.  This  vowel 
was  originally  o,  but  is  generally  weakened  to  i  or  some- 
times flattened  to  u,  as  with  the  real  stem  vowels. 
Thus :  — 

parricida,  murderer  of  a  father      pair-  -f-  i  -\-  [clda]. 

morigerus*  complying  mor-  +  i  -\-  \_gerus~\. 

pedisequa^  female  attendant          ped-  +  *  +  \_sequa]. 

298.  Most  compound  verbs  are  formed  of  simple  verbs 
and  prepositions.     Thus  :  — 

incipio,  seize  upon,  begin        in  -\-  capio. 
aufero,  take  away  ab  -\-fero. 

subverto,  overturn  sub  -|-  verto. 

*  Literally,  carrying  (i.  e.,  putting  up  with)  a  person's  whims, 
t  Literally,  foot-follower. 


178  WORD-FORMATION. 

a.  The  prepositions  were  earlier  adverbs,  and  in  composition 
often  retain  their  adverbial  force.    Cf.  1  prae,  seqitor,  go  before, 
I  (will)  follow  (Ter.,  And.,  i.,  1,  144),  with  ut  consulibus  lictdres 
praeirent,  that  lictors  should  walk  before  the  consuls  (Cic.,  lie 
Pub.,  ii.,  31,  55). 

b.  The  following  compounds  of  verbs  with  other  words  than 
prepositions  occur  :  — 

adsuefacio*  )  mansuefacid,  tame. 

cdnsuefacid,  )  a  patefacw,  open. 

benefacio,  benefit.  satisfacid,  satisfy. 

calefacid,  make  warm.  tremefacid^  cause  to  tremble. 

commonefacio,  remind  forcibly,  maid,  prefer  (mage  -f-  void), 
labefacio,  make  totter.  ndld.  be  unwilling  (ne  -\-  void), 

malefacid,  do  harm  to.  satagd,  be  busy  enough  (sat  -f- 

agd). 

299.  In  the   second  part  of   words  compounded  with 
a  preposition  or  the  negative  prefix  in-,  vowel  weakening 
generally  occurs.     Thus :  — 

cdnficid,  cdnfectum      con  -\-  facio,  factum. 

imperd  in  (prep.)  -)-  pard. 

inimlcus  in-  (neg.)  -(-  amicus. 

iriiqiuus  in-  (neg.)  -f-  aequus. 

a.  In  compounds  of  iacid  the  verb  form  appears  as  icw, 
before  which  the  vowel  of  a  preposition  ending  in  a  vowel  is 
retained  long,  and  that  of  one  ending  in  a  consonant  is  often 
lengthened.  Thus  :  — 

abicid.  deiciS.  traicid'. 

cOnicid.  obicid.  subicid. 

300.  A  very  few  words  are  compounded  of  more  than 
two  stems.     Thus :  — 

suovetaurUia  f         sit-  -\-  ovi-  +  tauro- 
a.  Words   of    which   both  parts  are  inflected  are,  properly 

*  The  nature  of  the  first  part  of  these  compounds  of  facio  is  obscure ;  it 
is  probably  a  noun  form  or  possibly  an  infinitive. 

t  A  sacrifice  consisting  of  a  swine,  a  sheep,  and  a  bull. 

J  These  words  are  accented  like  the  simple  facio  ;  as,  benefa'cit. 


FORMS   OF  PREPOSITIONS  IN  COMPOUNDS.  179 

speaking,  not  compounds,  and  in  the  best  usage  are  written 
separately.  Thus  :  ius  iilrandum,  oath  ;  res  publica,  state  ; 
veri  similis,  likely. 

b.  So  also  forms  like  midtimodis  (i.  e.,  multls  modis),  inpri- 
mis,  agrl  cultura,  aquae  ductus,  pater  familids,  are  not  real 
compounds,  but  only  phrases  which  have  grown  more  or  less 
together.      Perhaps  also  satis  facio,  bene  facio,  etc.,  should  be 
classed  with  these  loose  unions  of  words  rather  than  as  com- 
pound verbs.    In  animadverto  (i.  e.,  animum  adverto)  the  union 
is  disguised  by  the  dropping  of  the  accusative  ending  -um. 

c.  From  real  compounds  are  to  be  distinguished  derivatives 
from  compounds,  such  as  the  following :  — 

beneficium,  kindness,  from  beneficus  (bene-,  stem  of  old  form 
of  bonus,  and  ficus,  from  root  of  facio). 

solstitium,  solstice,*  as  if  from  solstitus  (sol-  and  status). 

tergiversarl,  shuffle,  as  if  from  tergiversus  (tergo-  and  versus). 

Cf.  cogittire,  to  meditate,  which  may  be  regarded  as  a  com- 
pound of  com  and  agitare,  or  as  a  frequentative  of  cogere,  itself 
a  compound  of  com  and  agere. 

NOTE.  Latin  did  not  develop  the  ability  to  form  compounds  to  anything 
like  the  extent  of  the  Greek  and  other  kindred  languages.  Most  of  the 
compounds  formed,  except  those  with  prepositions  or  the  negative  prefix 
in-,  are  rare  and  confined  chiefly  to  the  poets. 

Forms  of  the  Prepositions  in  Compounds. 

301.  Prepositions  ending  in  a  consonant  vary  greatly 
in  the  degree  in  which  their  final  consonant  is  assimilated 
with  the  initial  consonant  of  the  other  part  of  the  com- 
pound. Thus,  in  the  best  usage  :  — 

(1.)  ab  is  written*  before  d,  h,  i  consonans,  1,  n,  r,  s. 
Thus  :  ab-cfo'co,  ab-Aorreo,  ab-iectus^  ab-iudico,  ab-Zet/o, 
ab-nuo,  ab-ripio,  ab-sum. 

abs  before  c,  t.     Thus  :  abs-cec7d,  eibs-tineo. 

as  before  p.     Thus  :  B,s-porto. 

a  before  f  in  a-fin,  and  before  in  or  v.  Tbus :  a-mcweo, 
a-voco. 

*  The  time  when  the  sun  seems  to  stand  still. 


180  WORD-FORMATION. 

au  before  f  in  au-fero  and  au-fugio. 

(2.)  ad  is  written  before  b,  d,  f,  h,  i  consonans,  m,  n, 
q,  v.  Thus :  ad-bibo,  ad-duco,  ad-fatim,  ad-fero,  ad- 
haereo,  ad-iuto,  B&mrabilis,  ad-moneo,  ad-nuo,  ad-qmro, 
ad-voco. 

Generally  before  g,  1,  p,  r,  s.  Thus :  ad-gredior,  ad- 
ligo,  ad-peto,  ad-rogo,  ad-sum.  Otherwise  assimilation 
takes  place.  Thus :  ag-ger,  al-ligo,  ap-peto,  ar-rogo. 

ac  before  c.     Thus :  ac-cipio. 

ad  or  a  before  gn,  sp,  sc,  st.  Thus:  a-gnosco  (ad- 
wosco),  ad-splro  (a-spiro)^  ad-scisco,  ad-stri?igo  (a- 
stringo). 

ad  or  at  before  t.     Thus :  at-traho  (ad-traho). 

(3.)  ante  has  the  form  anti  in  anti-cipo  (from  an  ob- 
solete anti-ceps),  anti-ci^a^'o,  anti-stes,  anti-s^o.* 

(4. )  com  is  written  before  b,  m,  p.  Thus :  com-buro, 
com-mltto,  com-pdges,  com-paro. 

con  before  c,  d,  g,  i  consonans,  q,  t,  v,  and  generally, 
before  1  and  r.  Thus :  cou-cipio,  con-duco,  con-gero, 
con-iuro,  con-queror,  con-temno,  con-^oco,  con-lego  (col- 
lego),  con-loquium  (co\-loquiuiri) ,  con-rwo  (cor-rwo). 

c5n  before  f ,  s.  Thus  :  con^ero,  con-sterno,  con-sisto. 

co  before  gn,  n,  and  before  vowels  f  and  h,  and  when 
contracted  as  in  cogo.  Thus :  co-gnosco,  co-necto,  co- 
riiveo,  co-mtor.  (Cf.  conubium.) 

(5.)  ex  is  written  before  c,  h,  p,  q,  s,  t.  Thus :  ex- 
celsus,  ex.-cipio,  ex-Aawrzo,  ex.-peto,  ez.-quiro,  ex-^pec^o, 
ex.-tendo. 

e  before  b,  d,  g,  i  consonans,  1,  m,  n,  r,  v.  Thus : 
e-blandior,  e-duco,  e-gredior,  e-gregius,  e-iuro,  e-labor, 
e-mineo,  o-neco,  e-ripio,  e-vado. 

ef,  and  sometimes  ec,  before  f.  Thus:  ei-fero  and 
(less  commonly)  ec-fero. 

*  Cf.  the  old  forms  antid-ed,  antid-eo,  antid-hac. 
t  Comedo  may  be  an  exception. 


FOKMS   OF   PREPOSITIONS    IN   COMPOUNDS.  181 

(6.)  in  is  written  before  c,  d,  g  (except  gn),  h,  i  con- 
sonans,  n,  q,  t,,v.  Thus:  iu-cedo,  iu-duco,  in-gemisco, 
in-hid,  iu-iungd,  iu-mtor,  iu-qmro,  in-tendo,  iu-vado. 

in  is  also  generally  written  before  1  and  sometimes  be- 
fore b,  m,  p,  r.  Otherwise  assimilation  occurs  before 
1  and  r ;  and  im  is  written  before  b,  m,  p.  Thus :  in- 
lustro,  im-5wo,  in-mltto  (im-imtto),  im-pero  (in-pero), 
in-wio  (ir-ruo). 

in  before  f,  s.     Thus  :   infer o,  in-sero. 

a.  What  has  been  said  of  the  preposition  in  is  equally  true  of 
the  negative  prefix  in-.     We  write,  therefore,  in-liberalis,  in- 
mortalis  (im-mortalis) ,  in-sons,  in-visus,  etc. 

b.  The  negative  prefix,  however,  unlike  the  preposition,  oc- 
curs before  gn,  and  then  has  the  form  1 ;  as,  t-gmarus,  l-griosco. 

(7.)  ob  is  written  before  d,  h,  i  consonans,  1,  m,  n,  r, 
s,  t,  v.  Thus :  ob-duco,  ob-haereo,  ob-iectus,  6b-iurgo, 
ob-/mo,  ob-mutesco,  db-nubo,  ob-rwo,  ob-sisto,  ob-tineo, 
ob-venio. 

Assimilation  generally  takes  place  before  c,  f,  p. 
Thus  :  oc-curro,  of-fero,  op-peto. 

o  is  written  in  o-mitto,  and  o-perio. 

obs  in  obs-olesco,  and  without  the  b  in  os-tendo. 

(8.)  per  is  unchanged,  except  in  pe-iero  for  per-iuro. 
e-iero  is  also  sometimes  written. 

(9.)  sub  is  written  before  d,  h,  i  consonans,  1,  s,  t,  v. 
Thus:  sub-duco,  sub-haereo,  &ub-iungo,  sub-levo,  sub- 
lustris,  sub-sisto,  sub-tendo,  sub-venio. 

Sometimes  before  m  and  r.  Thus  :  sub-moved  (sum- 
moveo),  sub-ripio  (sur-ripio). 

sus  (for  subs)  in  sus-c^?io,  sus-c^o,  sus-pendo,  sus- 
tineo,  sus-tuli. 

su  in  su-spicere,  su-splro. 

Assimilation  occurs  before  c,  f,  g,  p,  and  sometimes  m 


182  WORD-FORMATION. 

and  r  (see  above).  Thus:  suc-cwrro,*  suf/ero,  sug-gero, 
Bup-peto,  sup-pleo. 

(10.)  trans  is  written  before  d,  f,  g,  m,  p,  v.  Thus  : 
trans-cwn'o,  trans^ero,  tr&nsfuga,  trans-^re^ior,  trans- 
mitto,  trans-/9or#o,  trans-^eAo. 

tran  before  s.     Thus  :  tran-sm'&6,  tran-sce7ic?o. 

trans  or  tra  before  d,  n.  Thus :  trans-dwco  (tra- 
ded), tra-c?o,  trans-?ia£o  (ixar-natd)  : 

302.  Among  the  inseparable  prepositions  — 

(1.)  amb  becomes  am  before  consonants,  chiefly  p. 
Thus:  am-puto,  am-plector.  But  an  before  f,  h,  or  a 
palatal  mute.  Thus :  an-AeZo,  an-gmro  (cf .  an-ceps,  an- 
fractus). 

(2.)  dis  is  written  in  6is-hiasco,  and  before  c,  p,  q,  t, 
and  s,  followed  by  a  vowel.  Thus  :  dis-cedo,  dis-par, 
dis-puto,  dis-^?/I/*o,  dis-te?ido,  dis-sentio  (but  di-sertus, 
from  dis-sero). 

dif  before  f.     Thus  :  dif/ero,  dif-fcilis. 

di  before  other  consonants.  Thus :  dl-duco,  61-gero, 
di-moveo,  dl-scindo. 

dis  or  di  before  i  consonans.  Thus  :  dis-iungo,  but 
dl-iudico. 

(3.)  re  (so  also  pro)  retains  the  original  d  before 
vowels.  Thus  :  red-6o.  Also  in  red-c?o. 

303.  A  few  compounds  with  prepositions  ending  in  a 
consonant  suffer  contraction.     Thus  :  — 

surgo  for  sub  -\-  rego.  pergo  for  per  -]-  rego. 

pond     "  po    -\-  sirio. 

Quantity  of  Compounds. 

304.  Compound  words  generally  retain  the  quantity  of 
the  parts  of  which  they  are  composed,  even  though  vowel 
change  may  have  taken  place. 

*  Here  also  sub  is  sometimes  left  unchanged. 


I  TJNrv 

QUANTITY   OF   COMPOUNDS.  183 

NOTE.  The  following  observations  are  inserted  here  for  the  convenience 
of  the  learner,  although  some  of  the  words  treated  are  not  compounds ;  for 
example,  quid  am. 

305.  i  is  long  in  the  first  part  of  words  like  qmdam, 
quwis,  etc.,  if  that   part  is   declined.      Thus  :    qmlibet, 
qiiicumque,  etc.,  but  quldem. 

306.  The  following  words  beginning  with  pro   (and 
their  derivatives)  have  the  o  short :  — 

a.  procella,  blast,  storm.  proffingo,  break  up. 
prof  and,  desecrate.                     profugio,  flee  from. 
profecto,  surely.  profundus,  deep. 
profestus,  non-festival  (day),    pronepos,  great-grandson. 
proficiscor,  start.                          propes,  a  piece  of  rigging. 
profiteer,  profess.                        propinquus,  near. 

prof  am,  speak  out.  protervos  (-us),  forward. 

b.  All  Greek  words,  and  the   following  with   their   deriva- 
tives :  — 

probus,  first  class.  proco,  demand. 

probrum,  wrong.  procus,  suitor. 

prope,  near.  propitius,  propitious. 

c.  The  o  is  common  in  propago,  f.,  a  slip,  propagare,  to 
propagate,  and  propinare,  to  drink  to  the  health  of. 

307.  The  following  compounds  of  ne  have  the  e  long; 
others  have  it  short :  — 

necubi.  riequam.  nequitia. 

necunde.  nequaquam.  nescius. 

nedum.  nequlquam.  riescio. 

nemo.  nequiter.  neve. 

308.  The   following   quantities  are  useful  to  remem- 
ber: — 

alicubt.  ubivis.  quandoquidem. 

sicubi.  utinam.  siquidem. 

ubicumque.  ibidem.  nisi, 

ubinam.  equidem.  quasi, 

jue.  quidem.  alibi. 


184  SYNTAX. 

NOTE  1.  An  interesting  relation  exists  between  the  consonants  of  many 
primitive  words  in  Latin  and  those  of  the  corresponding  words  in  English, 
both  being  derived  from  the  same  (ludo-European)  parent  language.  This 
relation  may  be  indicated  by  the  following  scheme  :  — 


Latin. 

English. 

Latin. 

English. 

c 

h* 

cam's, 

hound. 

g 

k 

genus, 

kin. 

t 

th 

tres, 

three. 

d 

t 

decem, 

ten. 

P 

f 

pater, 

father. 

b  (rare) 

P 

labrum, 

lip. 

f 

b 

fero,  f  rater, 

bear,  brother. 

1 

lux, 

light. 

m 

metis, 

mind. 

n 

novos, 

new. 

r 

rectus, 

right. 

s 

sudvis,  i/sudd, 

sweet. 

i  consondns       y  iuvenis,  young. 

v  w  via,  volnus,  way,  wound. 

NOTE  2.  It  will  be  seen  that,  as  far  as  the  mutes  are  concerned,  the 
English  word  shows  the  mute  which  occupies  in  the  scale  smooth,  middle, 
rough,  the  place  next  after  the  Latin  mute  (Grimm's  Law  of  the  Per- 
mutation of  Mutes). 

SYNTAX    (Syntaxis). 
THE  SENTENCE. 

309.  A  SENTENCE   (sententio)  is  the  statement  of  a 
complete  thought  in  words ;  as,  canes  Idtrant,  the  dogs  are 
barking. 

310.  (1.)  That  about  which  something  is  said  is  called 
the  SUBJECT  (subiectum)  of  the  sentence. 

(2.)  That  which  is  said  of  the  subject  is  called  the 
PREDICATE  (praedicatum). 

Thus,  in  the  above  sentence,  canes  is  the  subject  and  latrant 

is  the  predicate.     In  the  sentence,  Hannibal,  mdgnus  dux  Kar- 

thaginiensium,   sempiternum   erg  a   Romarios   odium   iuravit, 

Hannibal  the  great  Carthaginian  leader  swore  everlasting  hatred 

*  This  h  is  the  remnant  of  an  earlier  ch. 


THE   SENTENCE.  185 

towards  the  Romans,  the  subject  is  Hannibal  magnus  dux 
Karthaginiensium,  the  predicate  sempiternum  erga  Romanos 
odium  iuravit. 

311.  (1.)  A  sentence  containing  only  one  subject  and 
predicate  is  called  a  SIMPLE  sentence. 

(2.)  A  sentence  consisting  of  two  or  more  members, 
each  of  which  has  its  own  subject  and  predicate,  is  called 
a  COMPOUND  sentence.  Thus  :  — 

Latravit  canis  —  et  fur  velociter  fugit,  the  dog  barked  and 
the  thief  ran  quickly  away ;  cum  pugnae  finis  esset  factus  — 
eos  —  qui  ceciderant  —  sepeliebant,  when  the  battle  was  fin- 
ished, they  began  to  bury  those  who  had  fallen. 

312.  The  different  members  of  a  compound  sentence 
are  called  CLAUSES. 

313.  Clauses  are  either  PRINCIPAL  or  SUBORDINATE. 

314.  (1.)  A  PRINCIPAL  (also  called  INDEPENDENT) 
clause  is  one  which  makes  complete  sense  by  itself ;  as, 
latravit  canis,  or  eos  sepeliebant. 

(2.)  A  SUBORDINATE  (or  DEPENDENT)  clause  is  one 
which  makes  complete  sense  only  when  taken  with  some 
other  clause  upon  which  it  is  said  to  depend.  Thus :  cum 
pugnae  finis  esset  factus,  and  qul  ceciderant,  in  the  sen- 
tence above. 

a.  Sentences  which  contain  subordinate  clauses  and  only  one 
principal  clause  are  sometimes  called  COMPLEX  sentences  ;  as, 
Phocion  fuit  perpetud  pauper,  cum  dltissimus  esse  posset,  Pho- 
cion  was  always  poor,  when  he  might  have  been  very  rich.    The 
term  "  compound  sentence  "  is  then  confined  to  sentences  which, 
like  latravit  canis  et  fur  velociter  fugit,  have  more  than  one 
independent  clause.     In  complex  sentences  the  principal  clause 
is  often  called  the  MAIN  clause. 

b.  Parts  of  a  sentence  consisting  of  two  or  more  words  which 
are  not  subject  and  predicate  are  called  PHRASES.     Thus :  mag- 
nus dux  Karthaginiensium  ;  fortiter  pugnare. 


186  SYNTAX. 

315.  Sentences  are  distinguished  as  — 

(1.)  DECLARATIVE  (dedaratwae),  or  such  as  have  the 
form  of  a  statement ;  as,  venffi,  spirant,  the  winds  blow. 

(2.)  INTERROGATIVE  (interrogafavae),  or  such  as  have 
the  form  of  a  question ;  as,  splrantne  venti,  do  the  winds 
blow  ? 

(3.)  EXCLAMATORY  (exclamatoriae),  or  such  as  have 
the  form  of  an  exclamation  ;  as,  quam  vehementer  spirant 
venti,  how  fiercely  the  winds  blow !  Utinam  veniat,  oh 
that  he  may  come  ! 

(4.)  IMPERATIVE  (imperafivae),  or  such  as  have  the 
form  of  a  command,  an  exhortation,  or  a  prohibition ;  as, 
sptrdte,  ventl,  blow,  winds ;  veniat  bellum,  let  the  war 
come ;  ne  quaesieris,  ask  not. 

a.  Sentences  expressing  exhortation  are  also  called  HORTA- 
TORY ;  those  denoting  prohibition,  PROHIBITORY. 

RULES  OF  AGREEMENT. 

316.  The  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is  put  in  the  nomina- 
tive case,  and  the  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  number 
and  person.     Thus:  — 

EgO  scribo,  I  write ;  nos  venwmus,  we  shall  come ;  tu  legis, 
you  read;  hi  Graecl  sunt,  these  men  are  Greeks;  Romulus 
Romam  condidit,  Romulus  founded  Rome. 

a.  When  the  subject  is  a  personal  pronoun,  especially  in  the 
first  or  second  person,  it  is  seldom  expressed  except  when  it 
marks  a  contrast  or  is  otherwise  emphatic.  The  person  and 
number  are  shown  by  the  ending  of  the  verb.  Thus  :  — 

Cupid,  I  desire  ;  vivis,  thou  livest ;  habemus,  we  have  ;  dl- 
cunt,  they  say.  But :  egd  reges  ewci,  vos  tyranrios  introduci- 
tis.  I  drove  out  kings,  but  you  are  bringing  in  tyrants  ;  til  es 
patromis,  tu  pater,  you  are  my  defender,  you  my  father. 

317.  The  nominative   of   the  third  person  is  further 
omitted :  — 


RULES   OF   AGREEMENT.  187 

(1.)  When  it  has  been  expressed  in  a  previous  clause  (gen- 
erally as  subject,  but  also  sometimes  in  other  constructions). 
Thus  :  — 

Mosa  profluit  ex  monte  Vosego  et  in  Oceanum  Influit  (Caes., 
B.  6r.,  iv.,  10),  the  Mense  rises  in  the  Vosges  mountains  and 
empties  into  the  ocean  ;  cursorem  mlserunt  ut  id  nuntiaret, 
they  sent  a  courier  to  carry  that  news  (Cor.  Nep.). 

(2.)  When  people  in  general  are  meant,  as  when  we  say 
"  men,"  •'  they,"  "  one."  Thus  :  - 

Dlcunt,  they  say  ;  ut  aiunt,  as  they  say ;  maxime  admiran- 
tur  eum  qu7i  pecunia  ndn  movetur,  men  particularly  admire  one 
who  is  not  influenced  by  money  (Cic.). 

(3.)  So  in  treatises  or  discussions,  when  the  subject  denotes 
a  type  of  persons,  where  we  say  "  one."  Thus  :  — 

In  victu  considerare  oportet  apud  quern  et  quo  more  et  ciiius 
arbitratu  sit  educatus,  in  regard  to  manner  of  living  we  must 
consider  in  whose  family  and  in  what  fashion  and  under  whose 
direction  one  has  been  brought  up  (i.  e.,  the  person  in  question) 
(Cic.,  Inv.y  i.,  25,  35). 

318.  Certain  verbs  are  used  in  the  third  person  singular 
without  a  subject  (impersonal,  impersonalia).  Thus:  — 

(1.)  Verbs  denoting  the  state  of  the  weather  or  operations  of 
nature  ;  as,  fulgurat,  it  lightens  ;  ningit,  it  snows  ;  lucescebat, 
it  was  growing  light. 

(2.)  The  verbs  of  feeling :  miseret,  pity ;  paenitet,  repent ; 
piget,  be  disgusted ;  pudet,  be  ashamed ;  taedet,  be  tired. 
Thus :  — 

Eos  ineptiarum  paenitet,  they  repent  (lit.,  it  repents  them) 
of  their  follies  ;  miseret  te  aliorum,  tul  te  nee  miseret  nee 
pudet,  you  do  pity  others  ;  for  yourself  you  have  neither  pity 
nor  shame  (Plaut.,  Trin.,  ii.,  4,  30). 

NOTE.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  real  subject  of  the  feeling  here  is  by  a 
grammatical  idiom  made  the  object  of  the  verb. 

(3.)  The  passive  of  intransitive  verbs  and  of  some  transitive 
verbs.  Thus  :  — 


188  SYNTAX. 

Favetur  tibi  a  me,  you  have  my  support ;  ad  exitum  ven- 
tum  est,  the  end  was  reached ;  actum  est  de  imperio,  the  su- 
premacy is  lost  (lit.,  it  is  finished  with  regard  to  the  supremacy). 

(4.)  Especially  the  neuter  of  the  gerundive  with  est,  erat, 
etc.,  denoting  what  must  be  done.  Thus  :  — 

Si  vis  me  flere,  dolendum  est  prlmum  ipsi  tibi,  if  you 
want  me  to  weep,  you  must  first  grieve  yourself  (Hor.,  Epist., 
ii.,  3,  102). 

a.  Many  apparently  impersonal  verbs  have  a  clause  or  an 
infinitive  as  subject.  So  especially  words  like  accidit,  happens  ; 
constat,  is  accepted  as  true  ;  convenit,  is  agreed.  Thus :  — 

Everiit,  senibus  ambobus  simul  iter  ut  esset,  both  old  gentle- 
men happened  to  take  the  same  road  (Ter.,  Phor.,  i.,  2,  15)  ; 
vacare  culpa  magnum  est  solacium,  to  be  free  from  fault  is  a 
great  consolation  ;  orandum  est  ut  sit  mens  sana  in  corpora 
sand,  we  should  pray  for  a  sound  mind  in  a  sound  body  (luv., 
Sat.,  x.,  356)  ;  oratorem  Irascl  non  decet,  it  is  unseemly  for  an 
orator  to  give  way  to  anger. 

319.  Two  or  more  singular  subjects  generally  have  a 
plural  verb.     Thus  :  — 

Furor  ir&que  mentem  praecipitant,  madness  and  passion 
rob  [me]  of  my  cool  reason  (Verg.) ;  grammatice  quondam  ac 
musice  iunctae  fuerunt,  grammar  and  music  were  once  united 
(Quint.). 

a.  The  verb  is  always  plural,  when,  as  in  the  second  example, 
it  would  make  no  sense  with  the  subjects  taken  separately. 

320.  With  several  singular  subjects,  however,  the  verb 
is  singular  if  — 

(1.)  They  form  together  one  idea  ;  as  :  — 

Senatus  populusque  Rdm&nus  iussit,  the  Roman  senate 
and  people  gave  orders ;  mens  enim  et  ratio  et  consilium  in 
senibus  est,  intelligence,  reason,  wisdom  belong  to  old  men. 

(2.)  Generally  if  connected  by  a  word  meaning  "  or "  or 
"  nor  "  (aut,  vel,  neque,  etc.)  ;  as  :  — 

Si  Socrates  aut  Antisthenes  diceret,  if  Socrates  or  Antis- 
thenes  said  [this]. 


APPOSITIVES   AND   PREDICATE   NOUNS.  189 

321.  But  the  verb  often  agrees  with  the  nearest  nomi- 
native, or  with  the  most  important  one,  and  is  understood 
with  the  rest.     Thus  :  — 

Turn  aetas  vtresque,  turn  avita  gloria  animum  stimulabat, 
then  his  (youthful)  age  and  strength  and  the  thought  of  his 
grandfather's  glory  goaded  on  his  spirit  (Liv.). 

a.  This  is  always  the  case  when  the  verb  belongs  to  each  sub- 
ject separately  ;  as  :  — 

Magis  ego  te  am5  quain  tu  me,  I  love  you  more  than  you 
love  me. 

322.  When  a  plural  verb  is  used  with  subjects  of  differ- 
ent persons,  it  is  of  the  first  person  rather  than  the  second, 
and  of  the  second  person  rather  than  the  third.     Thus  :  — 

Si  tu  et  Tullia  valetis,  ego  et  Cicero  valemus,  if  you  and 
Tullia  are  well,  Cicero  and  I  are  well. 

323.  A  relative  pronoun  may  represent  any  one  of  the 
three  persons ;  its  verb  takes  therefore  the  person  of  the 
antecedent.     Thus :  — 

Eg5,  qui  te  confirmo,  ipse  me  rion  possum,  I,  who  comfort 
you,  cannot  comfort  myself. 

For  the  agreement  of  the  verb  with  an  appositive  or  a  predicate  noun, 
see  330. 

For  the  constructio  ad  sensum,  see  345  ff. 

APPOSITIVES  AND  PREDICATE  NOUNS. 

324.  A  noun  qualifying  another  noun  or  pronoun  de- 
noting the  same  person  or  thing  agrees  with  it  in  case. 

325.  When  the  qualifying  noun  is  annexed  to  the  other 
noun  without  the  intervention  of  a  verb  it  is  called  an 
APPOSITIVE,  and  the  words  are  said  to  be  IN  APPOSITION. 
Thus :  - 

Scipio  dux,  Scipio,  the  general ;  rios  consules,  we  consuls  ; 
urbs  Roma,  the  city  of  Rome  ;  Volsinii,  oppidum  Tuscorum 
opulentissimum,  totum  crematum  est  fulmine,  Volsinii,  a  very 
rich  town  of  the  Tuscans,  was  wholly  consumed  by  fire  caused 


190  SYNTAX. 

by  lightning  (Plin.,  N.  H.,  ii.,  53)  ;  Tullia,  deliciae  nostrae, 
munusculum  tuumflagitat,  Tullia,  my  darling,  has  a  little  favor 
to  beg  of  you  (Cic.,  Att.,  i.,  8.) 

a.  A  noun  may  be  in  apposition  to  two  or  more  nouns,  and 
is  then  usually  plural.     Thus  :  — 

M.  Antonius  C.  Cassius  tribunl  plebis,  Marcus  Antonius 
and  Gaius  Cassius,  tribunes  of  the  commons. 

b.  So  when  two  nouns  are  connected  by  cum,  an  appositive 
takes  the  case  of  the  former  ;  as  :  — 

Dicaearchum  vero  cum  Aristoxeno,  doctos  sane  homi- 
nes omittamus,  let  us  leave  out  Dicaearchus  with  Aristoxenus, 
[who  are]  certainly  learned  men. 

c.  A  noun  denoting  a  whole  may  have  in  apposition  to  it 
words  denoting  the  parts  (partitive  apposition) .     Thus  :  — 

Onerariae.  pars  maxima  ad  Aegimurum,  aliae  adversus 
urbem  ipsain  delatae  sunt,  the  ships  of  burden  were  mostly 
carried  to  Aegimurus,  others  over  against  the  city  itself  (Llv.). 

d.  Quisque,  as  an  appositive,  generally  remains  in  the  nomina- 
tive even  when  the  other  word  has  a  different  case  ;  as  :  — 

Multls  sib  i  quisque  imperium  petentibus,  while  many  were 
trying  to  get  the  power,  each  for  himself  (Sail.,  lug.,  18). 

e.  Ipse  is  sometimes  used  in  the  same  way  by  Livy  and  later 
writers. 

For  the  apposition  of  common  nouns  with  names  of  towns  in  construc- 
tions of  place,  see  426,  g  and  h. 

326.  In  the  same  sense  as  a  noun  in  apposition  is  some- 
times used  a  genitive  depending  on  the  noun  (see  351, 
note),  especially  with  names  of  cities  ;  as,  urbs  Romae. 

a.  The  expression  "  my  name  is  so  and  so "  may  be  trans- 
lated into  Latin  in  the  following  three  ways :  — 

Camillus  *  mihi  est  nomen  (proper  name  predicate  nomi- 
native). 

Camilla  mihi  est  nomen  (proper  name  in  app.  with  mihi). 

Camilli  mihi  est  nomen  (     *'          "        "   gen.  with  nomen). 

NOTE.     Cicero  uses  most  often  the  first  of  the  three  ways  given. 
*  Lit.,  "  Camillus  is  the  name  to  me." 


PREDICATE   NOUNS.  191 

327.  When  the  annexed  noun  is  combined  with  the 
other  by  the  copula  sum  or  other  similar  verb  (expressed 
or  implied  *)  it  is  called  a  PREDICATE  noun.     Thus  :  — 

Ira  furor  brevis  est,  anger  is  a  short  madness ;  ego  vocor 
Lyconides,  I  am  called  Lyconides ;  iudicem  me  esse  void,  I 
wish  to  be  a  judge. 

328.  Predicate    nouns     are     most     commonly    used 
with  :  — 

(1.)  The  copula  sum  ;  as :  — 

Socrates  sapiens  erat,  Socrates  was  a  philosopher. 

(2.)  Intransitive  verbs  denoting  existence,  position,  or 
motion ;  as  :  — 

Haec  incedit  reglna,  she  walks  [like]  a  queen  ;  tune  venis 
legatus,  do  you  come  as  an  ambassador  ? 

(3.)  The  passive  of  verbs  meaning  — 

a.  To  name  or  call ;  as  :  — 

Cicero  pater  patriae  est  appellatus,  Cicero  was  called  the 
father  of  his  country ;  ille  liber  orator  inseribitur,  that  book 
is  entitled  "  The  Orator." 

b.  To  choose,  render,  appoint ;  as  :  — 
Consul  credtus  est,  he  is  appointed  consul. 

c.  To  esteem,  reckon,  consider  ;  as  :  — 

Vir  bonus  semper  erat  habitus,  he  had  always  been  con- 
sidered a  good  man  ;  artium  domicilium  putantur  Athenae, 
Athens  is  thought  to  be  the  home  of  the  arts. 

(4.)  Many  other  verbs,  to  denote  a  purpose,  occasion, 
or  circumstance  of  the  action  ;  as  :  — 

Puer  hoc  audlvi,  I  heard  this  when  a  boy ;  Brutus  consul 
auspicla  nuntiavit,  Brutus,  as  consul,  declared  the  omens. 

329.  Appositives  and  predicate  ilouns  agree  in  gender 

*  When  the  verb  is  only  implied,  the  noun  is  sometimes  called  a  PRED- 
ICATE APPOSITIVE  ;  as,  Ciceronem  consulem  credverunt,  they  appointed 
Cicero  [to  be]  consul. 


192  SYNTAX. 

with  the  nouns  they  qualify,  if  they  have  a  form  of  the 
same  gender.     Thus :  — 

Usus,  magister  egregius,  experience,  an  excellent  master ; 
philosophia,  vitae  magistra,  philosophy,  the  guide  of  life  ; 
licentia  corruptrix  est  niorum,  excessive  freedom  is  a  cor- 
rupter  of  character. 

a.  There  was  a  tendency  to  make  the  two  nouns  agree  in 
number  also.     Thus  :  — 

Omltto  illds  omnium  doctriricirum  inventrices  Athenas.  I 
leave  out  Athens,  that  well  known  discoverer  of  all  the  branches 
of  learning  (cf.  Cic.,  de  Or.,  i.,  4,  13). 

b.  When  a  verb   has  a  complementary  infinitive  (see  532) 
dependent  upon  it,  its  predicate  noun  is  still  nominative  ;  as  :  — 

Ndl~)  esse  sceleratorum  laudator,  I  would  not  be  a  eulogist 
of  rascals. 

c.  In  the  poets  a  similar  usage  is  sometimes  found,  by  which 
an  infinitive  which  should  have  a  subject  is  used  without  a  subject, 
and  the  predicate  noun  which  would  be  in  the  accusative  is  at- 
tracted into  the  nominative  ;  as  :  — 

Uxor  invicti  lovis  esse  riescis,  know'st  thou  not  thou  art  the 
wife  of  Jove  invincible  ? 

330.  A  verb  sometimes  agrees  with  a  predicate  noun, 
or  a  noun  in  apposition  with  the  subject,  especially  if  it  is 
nearer  than  the  subject.     Thus  :  — 

Amantium  Irae  amoris  integrati5  est,  the  quarrels  of  lov- 
ers are  a  renewal  of  love  (Ter.,  An.,  iii.,  3,  23)  ;  Tungrl,  civi- 
tas  Galliae,  fontem  habet  insignem,  the  Tungri,  a  state  of 
Gaul,  have  a  remarkable  fountain  (Plin.,  N.H.,  xxxi.,  2  (8),  12). 

NOTE.  This  is  always  the  case  when  the  appositive  is  the  name  of  a 
person. 

Kindred  Constructions. 

331.  Instead  of  a  predicate  noun  (nominative  or  accu- 
sative), occur  also  :  — 


AGREEMENT   OF   ADJECTIVES.  193 

(1.)  A  dative  of  service  (see  385)  ;  as,  hoc  mihft  erat 
curae. 

(2.)  An  ablative  with  pro  (see  43O)  ;  as,  pro  filio  eum 
habebat. 

(3.)  A  genitive  after  loco,  in  place  of,  or  in  numero,  in  the 
number  of. 

AGREEMENT  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

332.  ADJECTIVES,   ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS,   and  PAR- 
TICIPLES agree  with  their  nouns  in  gender,  number,  and 
case. 

333.  When  such  words  are  applied  to  their  nouns  di- 
rectly they  are  called  ATTRIBUTIVES.     Thus  :  — 

Bonus  vir,  a  good  man ;  benlgna  mater,  a  kind  mother ; 
haec  res,  this  thing. 

334.  When  they  are  applied  indirectly  (by  means  of 
a  verb  expressed  or  implied)  they  are  called  PREDICATE 
adjectives,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

Mea  mater  est  benlgna,  my  mother  is  kind ;  hae  leges  uti- 
lissimae  ducuntur,  these  laws  are  considered  most  beneficial ; 
hae  sunt  verae  divitiae,  this  is  real  riches. 

NOTE.  Appositives  and  attributives  assume  the  thing  said  of  the  noun 
which  they  qualify;  predicate  nouns,  adjectives,  etc.,  affirm  it. 

335.  Adjectives  *  belonging  to  two  or  more  nouns  of 
the  same  gender  are  put  in  the  plural.     Thus  :  — 

Et  hie  imperator  et  ille  scriptor  praeclari  sunt,  both  this 
general  and  that  writer  are  famous. 

336.  When  the  nouns  are  of  different  genders,  if  they 
denote  things  with  life,  the  adjective  is  masculine  rather 
than  feminine  ;    if   they  denote  things  without  life,  the 
adjective  is  generally  neuter.     Thus  :  — 

Pater  mihi  et  mater  mortui  sunt,  my  father  and  mother 

*  Whatever  is  said  of  the  agreement  of  adjectives  applies  also,  of  course, 
to  adjective  pronouns  and  participles. 


194  SYNTAX. 

are  dead ;  regna,  imperia,  nobilitates,  honores,  divitiae, 
in  casu  sita  sunt,  kingdoms,  offices,  distinctions,  honors,  riches, 
depended  on  chance. 

NOTE.     This  is  the  more  common  use  with  &  predicate  adjective. 

337.  Or  the  adjective  may  be  — 

(1.)  Repeated  with  each  noun  ;    as  :  — 

Semproniae  multae  facetiae  multus^we  lepos  inerat, 
Sempronia  was  gifted  with  much  wit  and  grace. 

(2.)  Expressed  with  one  noun  and  understood  with  the 
others  ;  as  :  — 

Hominis  utUitatl  agri  omnes  et  znaria  parent,  all  lands 
and  seas  serve  the  needs  of  mankind. 

NOTE.  These  two  uses  are  perhaps  the  more  common  with  attributive 
adjectives.  (Compare  the  agreement  of  the  verb  with  several  subjects, 
319-321.) 

338.  Two  adjectives  in  the  singular  often  belong  to  a 
plural  noun  ;  as  :  — 

Cum  Iegi5nibus  secunda  et  tertia,  with  the  second  and 
third  legions. 

a.  A  singular  noun,  denoting  different  instances  of  the  same 
kind,  may  have  several  adjectives  agreeing  with  it ;  as  :  — 

Bellum  Punicum  et  Hispaniense,  the  Punic  and  Spanish 
wars. 

339.  Any  part  of  speech  used  as  a  mere  word  is  treated 
as   a  neuter  noun,  and  takes  an  adjective  in  the  neuter 
singular.     Thus  :  — 

Supremum  vale  dixit,  he  uttered  the  last  farewell ;  eras 
istud  quando  venit  ?  when  is  that  to-morrow  you  mention  com- 
ing? 

340.  When  the  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  omitted  after 
a  dative  denoting  the  same  person  or  thing,  a  predicate 
adjective  is  sometimes  put  in  the  dative,  sometimes  in 
the  accusative,    as   if   the    subject   had   been    expressed. 
Thus :  — 


AGREEMENT   OF   ADJECTIVES.  195 

Da  mihi  iust5  sancto^we  videri,  grant  me  to  seem  just 
and  holy ;  si  clvl  Romano  licet  esse  Gaditanum,  if  a  Roman 
citizen  may  [also]  be  a  citizen  of  Cades. 

341.  A  participle  which  should  regularly  agree  with 
the  subject  of  a  clause  sometimes  agrees  with  a  predicate 
noun,  or  with  a  noun  in  apposition  with  the  subject,  if 
these  are  nearer  the  participle.     (Cf.  330.)     Thus  :  — 

Non  omnis  error  stultitia  est  dicenda,  not  every  mistake 
is  to  be  called  folly ;  illorum  urbem  ut  propugnaculum  op- 
positum  esse  barbarls,  [he  said]  their  city  stood  as  a  bulwark 
in  the  way  of  the  barbarians. 

a.  An  adjective  which  belongs  in  sense  to  a  genitive  is  some- 
times made  to  agree  with  the  noun  on  which  the  genitive  de- 
pends.    Thus  :  — 

Ad  maiora  initia  rerum  ducentibus  fails,  the  fates  leading 
to  the  beginnings  of  greater  things. 

b.  An  adjective  belonging  to  a  noun  upon  which  a  partitive 
genitive  depends  sometimes  takes  the  gender  of  that  genitive  ; 
as  :  — 

Velocissimum  omnium  animalium  est  delphmus,  the 
swiftest  of  all  animals  is  the  dolphin. 

c.  An  adjective  which  belongs  in  sense  to  the  antecedent  of 
a  relative  pronoun  is  often  put  into  the  relative  clause  and  made 
to  agree  with  the  relative.     Thus  :  — 

Inter  iocos  quos  inconditos  iaciunt,  among  the  rude  jests 
which  they  bandy  about. 

NOTE.  This  is  the  usual  arrangement  with  numerals,  comparatives, 
and  superlatives.  Thus:  node  quam  in  terris  ultimam  egit,  the  last 
night  he  spent  on  earth  ;  Aesculapius,  qui  primus  volnus  obligdvisse  dicitur, 
^Esculapius,  who  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  to  bind  up  a  wound. 

AGREEMENT  OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS. 

342.  RELATIVE    PRONOUNS  agree  with  their  antece- 
dents in  gender  and  number,  but  their  case  depends  upon 


196  SYNTAX. 

the   construction  of  the   clause   to   which   they  belong.* 
Thus :  — 

Puer  qui  legit,  the  boy  who  reads  ;  ego  non  sum  qualis  eram, 
I  am  not  such  as  I  was ;  Deiis,  euros  munere  vlvimus,  cui 
nTillus  est  similis,  quem  colimus,  a  quo  facta  sunt  omnia,  est 
aeternuS)  God,  by  whose  bounty  we  live,  whom  none  is  like  unto, 
whom  we  worship,  by  whom  all  things  were  made,  is  eternal. 

a.  The  relative  pronoun  seems  to  have  been  originally  an  ad- 
jective pronoun  agreeing  with  a  noun  in  its  own  clause  and  re- 
ferring to  another  case  of  the  same  noun  with  a  demonstrative 
or  similar  word  in  the  antecedent  clause.     Examples  of  such  use 
still  occurred  in  classical  Latin  ;  as  :  — 

Erant  omnino  duo  itinera  quibus  itineribus  domd  exlre 
possent,  there  were  only  two  routes  by  which  (routes)  they 
could  go  from  home  (Caes.,  B.  6r.,  i.,  6), 

b.  Usually,  however,  only  one  of  these  nouns  is  expressed ; 
as :  — 

(1.)  The  antecedent  noun  expressed ;  as  :  — 

Tantae  multitudinis  quantam  capit  urbs  nostra  concursus 
est  dd  me  factus,  there  was  a  gathering  to  meet  me  of  a  crowd 
as  large  as  our  city  contains  (Cic.). 

(2.)  The  noun  in  the  relative  clause  expressed  ;  as  :  — 

Quibus  de  rebus  ad  me  scripsistl  coram  indebimus,  we 
will  see  about  the  things  of  which  you  wrote  me  when  we  meet 
(Cic.)  ;  in  quem  prlmum  egressl  sunt  locum  Trola  vocatw, 
the  first  place  at  which  they  landed  is  called  Troy  (Liv.), 

c.  The  noun  is  most  commonly  thus  expressed  in  the  relative 
clause  only  :  — 

(1.)  When,  as  in  the  examples,  the  relative  clause  precedes. 
A  demonstrative  then  often  stands  in  the  second  clause  ;  as :  — 

Ad  quas  res  aptissiml  erimus,  in  iis  potissimum  elaborabi- 
mus,  we  shall  toil  most  earnestly  in  those  things  for  which  we  are 
best  fitted. 

*  The  rule  applies,  of  course,  not  only  to  relative  pronouns  proper, 
but  to  all  pronouns  used  to  refer  to  words  in  clauses  other  than  their 


AGREEMENT   OF  RELATIVE  PRONOUNS.  197 

(2.)  When  the  noun  is  in  apposition  with  some  word  in  the 
antecedent  clause,  or  with  the  antecedent  clause  itself;  as  :  — 

Santones  non  longe  a  Tolosatium  flnibus  absunt,  quae 
clvitas  est  in  provincia,  the  Santones  are  not  far  from  the 
borders  of  the  Tolosates,  which  state  is  in  the  Province  (Caes.). 

d.  Sometimes  the  relative  clause  comes  between  the  antece- 
dent noun  and  the  rest  of  the  antecedent  clause.      The  ante- 
cedent then  usually  has  the  case  of  the  relative.     Thus :  — 

Urbem  quam  'statud  vestra  est,  the  city  which  I  am  building 
is  yours. 

e.  Occasionally  the  relative  takes  the  case  of  the  antecedent 
instead  of  its  own  proper  case.     Thus  :  — 

Cum  scribas  et  aliquid  agas  eorum  qu5rum  consuestl,  when 
you  write  and  speak  of  some  one  of  the  tilings  you  are  wont 
to  speak  of  (Cic.,  Fam.,  v.,  14,  l). 

NOTE,  d  and  e  are  called  cases  of  ATTRACTION,  and  are  rare  in  classical 
prose. 

343.  When  two  or  more  clauses  in  which  the  relative 
has  different  constructions  refer  to  the  same  antecedent, 
sometimes  the  relative  is  repeated  in  different  cases  (as 
in  the  third  example  under  342),  sometimes  only  the  first 
relative  is  expressed  and  the  others  are  either  omitted  or 
represented  by  demonstratives.  Thus  :  — 

Bocchus  cum  peditibus,  quos  films  eius  adduxerat,  neque 
in  priore  pugna  adfuerant,  Romanes  invadunt,  Bocchus  and  the 
infantry  which  his  son  had  brought  and  [  which  J  had  not  taken 
part  in  the  earlier  battle  attack  the  Romans  ;  Brutus  ille  cui 
Caesar  Igrioverat  et  eum  postea  f  ilium  fere  habuerat,  that  Bru- 
tus whom  Caesar  had  pardoned  and  had  afterwards  treated  al- 
most like  a  son. 

a.  When  a  predicate  noun  is  used  with  a  relative,  the  pro- 
noun commonly  agrees  with  the  predicate  noun  rather  than 
with  the  antecedent.  Thus  :  — 

Career  ille  quae  lautumiae  vocantur,  that  dungeon  which 
is  called  the  "  Stone  Quarry." 


198  SYNTAX. 

b.  But  if  the  sentence  is  negative  or  if  the  predicate  noun  is  a 
proper  name,  the  relative  agrees  with  its  antecedent  as  by  the 
general  rule.  Thus  :  — 

Nullum  factum  quod  stultitia  appellarl  potest  laude 
dlgnum  est,  no  act  which  can  be  called  folly  is  worthy  of  praise ; 
flumen  quod  nominator  Bhenus,  the  river  which  is  called  the 
Rhine. 

344.  A  relative  having  more  than  one  antecedent  is 
always  plural,  but  its  gender  is  regulated  like  that  of  ad- 
jectives (see  336  and  337).     Thus  :  — 

Nlnus  et  Semiramis  qui  Babylona  condiderant,  Ninus  and 
Semiramis  who  had  founded  Babylon  ;  naves  et  captivos  * 
quae  ad  Chium  capta  erant,  the  ships  and  prisoners  which  had 
been  taken  at  Chios ;  tu  et  pater,  qui  in  convlvio  eratis,  you 
and  father,  who  were  at  the  feast. 

COXSTKUCTIO    AD    SENSUM. 

345.  Sometimes    the    various   kinds    of   words    whose 
agreements  have  been  treated  in  the  foregoing  sections 
regulate  their  agreement  not  by  the  grammatical  form  as 
described,  but  in  accordance  with  the  real  meaning  in- 
volved.    This   is   called  CONSTRUCTIO  AD  SENSUM,  con- 
struction according  to  the  meaning.     It   is   particularly 
common  where  the  word  which  settles  the  agreement  is  a 
collective  noun. 

346.  Thus  a  plural  verb  is  often  used  :  — 

(1.)  When  the  subject  is  a  collective  word ;  as  :  — 

Uterque  eorum  ex  castris  exercitum  educunt,  both  of  them 
lead  their  armies  out  of  camp  (Csss.)  ;  pars  epulis  onerant 
mensas,  some  load  the  tables  with  food  (Verg.). 

a.  Abstract  nouns,  and  nouns  like  niiles,  eques,  etc.,  are  often 
used  collectively ;  as,  ndbilitas  for  "  nobles,"  eqiies  for  "  the 
cavalry." 

NOTE.  The  plural  verb  serves  to  bring1  out  more  distinctly  tlie  individu- 
*  Treated  as  "things." 


CONSTRUCTIO   AD   SENSUM.  199 

ality  of  the  persons  meant  by  the  collective  noun.  The  construction  is 
rare  in  simple  sentences  in  Cicero,  Csesar,  and  Sallust,  common  in  Livy, 
and  especially  frequent  in  poetry. 

(2.)  With  a  singular  subject  combined  with  cum  and 
the  ablative ;  as :  — 

Bocchus  cum  peditibus  postremam  Romandrum  aciem 
invadunt,  Bocchus  and  his  infantry  attack  the  rear  of  the  Ro- 
man line  (Sail.,  lug.). 

347.  So  also  the  number  and  gender  of  an  adjective 
sometimes  follow  the  sense  implied  :  — 

(1.)  In  a  collective  noun  or  its  equivalent ;  as  :  — 

Pars  per  agros  dilapsi  .  .  .  suam  quisque  spem  exsequentes, 
part,  scattering  through  the  country,  .  .  .  following  each  his 
own  hope  (Liv.)  ;  Latium  Capuar^e  agro  multati,  Latium 
and  Capua  were  fined  in  land  (i.  e.,  forced  to  give  up  part  of 
their  territory)  (Liv.). 

a.  In  such  cases,  when  the   verb  is  plural  (see  346)  the  ad- 
jective is  always  plural. 

b.  Sometimes,  especially  in  poetry,  only  the  gender  is   regu- 
lated by  the  constructio  ad  sensum.     Thus  :  — 

Pars  arduus  aids  pulverulentus  equls  furit,  part  raised 
aloft  on  tall  horses  dash  about  covered  with  dust  (Verg.). 

c.  Sallust  often,  and  other  writers  sometimes,  thus  use  a  neu- 
ter adjective  with  several  feminine  nouns  which  denote  things. 
Thus  :  — 

Plerosque  velocitas  et  regio  hostibus  ignara  tutata  sunt, 
their  speed  and  the  enemy's  ignorance  of  the  country  saved 
most  of  them  (Sail.). 

(2.)  When  the  word  with  which  the  adjective  would 
agree  is  implied  in  a  possessive  pronoun.  Thus  :  — 

Solius  meum  peccdtum  conrigl  non  potest,  my  sin  only 
cannot  be  made  good  (Cic.)  ;  cf.  pugna  RSmana  stabilis  sud 
pondere  incumbentium  in  hostem,  the  fighting  of  the  Romans 


200  SYNTAX. 

[was]  invincible  as  they  bore  down  upon  the  enemy  with  the 
very  weight  of  their  line  (Liv.). 

348.  Examples  of  similar  agreement  on  the  part  of  the 
relative  are  — 

(1.)  Antecedent  a  collective  word  ;  as  :  — 
Equitatum.  quos  mlserat,  the  cavalry,  whom  he  had  sent ; 
genus,  qui  premuntu r,  a  class  who  are  crushed  (Cic.). 

(2.)  Antecedent  not  a  collective  word ;  as  :  — 

Abundantia  earum  renim,  quae  mortales  prima  putant,  a 
plenty  of  those  things  which  mankind  imagine  of  the  first  im- 
portance (Sail.). 

(3.)  Antecedent  implied  in  a  possessive  pronoun,  or 
similar  adjective ;  as :  — 

Nostrum  consilium  laudandum  est,  qui  nohierim,  my  design 
is  praiseworthy,  who  was  unwilling  (Cic.). 

For  the  remaining  syntax  of  adjectives  and  pronouns,  see  438  ff. 

CASES  (C5s5s). 
NOMINATIVE  (Nominatwus). 

349.  Except  as  already  treated  (namely,  as  the  subject 
of  a  verb  or  as  an  appositive  or  predicate  noun),  the  NOMI- 
NATIVE is  used  only  as  follows,  and  that  rarely. 

(1.)  In  the  poets. 

a.  With  an  interjection,  to  make  an  exclamation  ;  as  :  — 
En  ego,  vester  Ascanius,  here  am  I,  your  Ascanius  (Verg., 

Ae.9  v.,  672). 

b.  Instead  of  the  vocative  ;  as  :  — 

6  virfortis  atque  amicus,  O  brave  man  and  friendly  (Ter.). 

(2.)  In  the  poets  and  late  prose  writers,  as  the  mere 
name  of  a  word  independently  of  the  construction  of  the 
sentence.  Thus :  — 

Eesonent  mihi  "  Cynthia  "  silvae,  let  the  woods  reecho  me 
"  Cynthia"  (Prop.,  i.,  18,  3l). 


NOMINATIVE   AND   GENITIVE   CASES.  201 

GENITIVE  (Genetwus). 

350.  The  GENITIVE  is   properly  the    case  which   ex- 
presses the  relation   of  one  noun  to  another,  and  is  in  its 
nature  equivalent  to  an  adjective. 

NOTE.  The  genitive  came  to  be  used  with  certain  adjectives  and  verbs, 
as  well  as  with  nouns.  Its  various  uses  may  be  thus  tabulated :  — 

SUBJECTIVE.  OBJECTIVE. 

Genitive  of  Source,  Cause,  or  Mate-     With  Nouns  of  Action  or  Feeling. 

rial.  "     Adjectives. 

Genitive  of  Possession.  f  of  Pity,  etc. 

Partitive  Genitive.  j  "  Feeling. 

Genitive  of  Characteristic.  "     Verbs")  "  Remembering,  etc. 

Predicate  Genitive.  I  "  Accusing,  etc. 

I  Interest  and  Eefert. 
Genitive  of  Price. 

351.  Any  noun  limiting  the  meaning  of  another  and 
not  denoting  the  same  thing  is  regularly  put  in  the  geni- 
tive.    Thus :  — 

Gtoriae  amor,  love  of  glory  ;  arma  Achillis,  the  arms  of 
Achilles  ;  nemorum  cFistos,  the  guardian  of  groves. 

NOTE.  The  difference  between  an  appositive  and  a  limiting  genitive  is 
that  the  appositive  denotes  the  same  thing  as  the  noun  modified  by  it, 
while  the  genitive  regularly  denotes  a  different  thing,  although  occasionally 
used  like  an  appositive,  as  in  vitium  irae,  urbs  Romae.  (Cf.  326.) 

352.  Many  relations  which  in   English  are  expressed 
by  prepositions   are   denoted   in  Latin  by  the  genitive. 
Some  of  the  commonest  are  — 

(1.)   Source  ;  as,  soils  radii,  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
(2.)  Cause  ;  as,  dolor  podagrae,  pain  from  the  gout. 
(3.)  Possession ;    as,   Caesaris   domus,  the    house   of 
Caesar. 

(4.)  Material ;  as,  monies  auri,  mountains  of  gold. 

353.  (1.)  A  genitive  is  called  SUBJECTIVE  when  it  de- 
notes the   subject  of  an  action   or  feeling  implied  in  the 
noun  it  limits,  or  indicates  that  to  which  a  thing  belongs. 

(2.)  It  is  called  OBJECTIVE  when  it  denotes  the  object 


202  SYNTAX. 

towards  which  the  action  or  feeling  implied  in  its  noun  is 
directed.     Thus  :  — 

SUBJECTIVE.  OBJECTIVE. 

virorum  facia,  deeds  of  men.         odium  viti,  hatred  of  wrong. 
aninii  dolor,  pain  of  spirit.  virtiitis  amor,  love  of  virtue. 

Ira  lunonis,  the  wrath  of  Juno,     deslderium  ot~i,  a  longing  for 

rest. 

a.  Sometimes    the    same   expression  may  serve  as  either   a 
subjective  or  an  objective  genitive,  and  the  context  must  show 
which  is  meant.     Thus  :   Caesaris  amor  may  mean  somebody's 
love  for  Caesar,  or  Caesar's  love  for  somebody  else. 

b.  To  avoid  ambiguity,  or  to  secure  greater  emphasis,  a  preposi- 
tion with  its  case  is  often  used  instead  of  the  genitive ;  as,  odium 
erga  Karthaginienses,  hatred  towards  the  Carthaginians. 

c.  Two  genitives  are  sometimes  used  with  the  same  noun,  one 
being  usually  subjective,  the  other  objective.     Thus  :  — 

Pro  veteribus  Helvetiorum  iniurils  populi  Roman!,  for 
the  old  wrongs  of  the  Helvetians  against  the  Roman  people 
(Caes.)  ;  Ulius  administratw  provincial,  his  performance  of  the 
duties  of  his  office  (Cic.). 

d.  The    noun  upon   which  a  genitive   depends  is  regularly 
omitted    in   certain    idiomatic   phrases ;    as,  ad   Dianae,  near 
Diana's  temple ;  sometimes  in  other  expressions  ;  as,  o  miserae 
sortis  !  O  ye  of  unhappy  lot !    solet  mihi  in  mentem  venire  ittlus 
temporis,  the  thought  of  that  time  is  wont  to  come  into  my  mind. 

e.  Especially  is  it  omitted  in  expressions  of  comparison  where 
in  English  "  that  of  "  is  used.     Thus  :  — 

Numae  regnum  pacatius  erat  quam  Romuli,  Numa's  reign 
was  more  peaceful  than  that  of  Romulus. 

PARTITIVE  GEXITIVE. 

354.  A  word  denoting  a  PART  is  limited  by  the  genitive 
of    the   whole    whose    part   is    taken.       Thus :    magnus 
hominnm  numerus,  a  large  number  of  men. 

355.  The    partitive    genitive   is    especially   common 
with  — 


PARTITIVE   GENITIVE.  203 

(1.)  Numerals  and  nouns  of  number  or  quantity ;  as :  — 
Equitum  centum  qulnquaginta  interfectl,  a  hundred  and 

fifty  horsemen  [were]  killed  (Curtius)  ;  permagnum  pondus 

argenti,  a  very  great  weight  of  silver. 

(2.)  Adverbs  denoting  quantity  or  amount  (used  as 
nouns)  ;  as :  — 

Satis  eloquentiae,  parum  sapientiae,  enough  eloquence,  but 
too  little  wisdom. 

(3.)  Adverbs  of  place  or  direction  ;  as  :  — 

Ubi  terrarum  sumus  ?  where  in  the  world  are  we  ?  quo 
amentiae  progressl  estis,  to  what  a  pitch  of  madness  have  ye 
gone  ? 

a.  The  word  of  direction  is  generally,  as  in  the  example,  used 
figuratively. 

(4.)  Comparatives  and  superla'tives  ;  as :  — 

Oratorum  praestantissimus,  most  famous  of  orators. 

(5.)  Neuter  pronouns  and  adjectives,  where  in  English 
the  adjective  agrees  with  the  noun  ;  as :  — 

Plus  eloquentiae,  more  eloquence ;  tantum  fidei,  so  much 
honor ;  hoc  aetatis,  at  this  time  of  life. 

a.  Like  partitive  genitives  are  the  redundant  genitives  adhuc 
locorum,  till  now  (Plaut.)  ;  postea  loci,,  afterwards  (Sail.) ;  in- 
terea  loci,  meanwhile  (Ter.)  ;  etc. 

b.  Pridie  and  postrldie  are  followed  by  a  genitive  which 
seems  to  be  partitive  in  its  nature;    as,  postrldie   eius  diet, 
the  day  after  that  day  (Caes.)  ;  pridie  msidiarum,  the  day  be- 
fore the  plot  (Tac.). 

GENITIVE  OF  CHARACTERISTIC  OR  QUALITY. 

356.  The  genitive,  with  an  adjective  agreeing  with  it, 
is  used  to  denote  a  property,  quality,  or  characteristic. 
Thus :  — 

Adulescens  summae  audaciae,  a  youth  of  the  utmost  daring 
(Sail.)  ;  fossa  pedum  vigintl,  a  ditch  twenty  feet  wide  (Caes.). 


204  SYNTAX. 

PREDICATE  GENITIVE. 

357.  The  genitive  is  often  used  in  the  predicate  with 
sum  and  like  verbs  to  denote  the  owner  of  something,  or 
the  person  (or  thing)  whose  duty,  characteristic,  or  busi- 
ness a  given  thing  is.     Thus  :  — 

Haec  domus  est  Caesaris,  this  house  is  Caesar's  ;  temeritds 
est  florentis  aetatis,  prudentia  senectutis,  rashness  belongs 
to  the  bloom  of  life,  discretion  to  old  age  (Cic.). 

NOTE.  The  predicate  genitive  bears  the  same  relation  to  the  direct 
genitive  which  a  predicate  noun  bears  to  an  appositive. 

KINDRED  CONSTRUCTIONS. 

358.  Instead  of  the  foregoing  genitives  the  following 
constructions  are  sometimes  used  :  — 

(1.)  Instead  of  a  subjective  genitive  an  adjective  is 
often  used,  either  agreeing  directly  with  the  noun  on 
which  the  genitive  would  depend,  or  serving  as  a  predicate 
adjective.  Thus :  — 

Amor  patrius,  a  father's  love ;  rwn  est  mentirl  meum,  it  is 
not  my  habit  to  lie. 

a.  An  adjective  less  commonly  takes  the  place  of  an  objec- 
tive genitive ;  as,  metus  hostilis,  fear  of  the  enemy. 

(2.)  Instead  of  the  possessive  genitive  of  a  personal 
pronoun,  the  corresponding  possessive  pronoun  is  almost 
invariably  used  ;  as :  — 

Liber  meus,  my  book ;  tuas  1'itteras  exspecto,  I  await  a  letter 
from  you.  (Cf.  also  the  second  example  under  1.) 

a.  The  possessive  pronoun  is  also  sometimes  used  for  an 
objective  genitive  ;  as,  mea  i?iiuria,  injury  to  me  (Sallust). 

(3.)  Instead  of  a  possessive  or  objective  genitive  a 
dative  of  possession  (see  384  below)  is  sometimes  used. 
Thus :  — 

Se  tertium  esse  cui  fatum  foret  urbis  pofirl,  [that]  he  was 
the  third  whose  destiny  it  was  to  be  master  of  the  city  (Cic.)  ; 


GENITIVE   CASE.  205 

huic  causae  patronus  exstiti,  I  have  come  forward  as  cham- 
pion of  [for]  this  cause  (Cic.,  Hose.  Am.,  2,  5). 

(4.)  Instead  of  a  partitive  genitive  a  partitive  apposi- 
tion (see  325,  c,  above)  is  used ;  as :  — 

Interfectores,  pars  in  forum,  pars  Syracusas  pergunt, 
some  of  the  slayers  proceed  to  the  market  place,  others  to  Syra- 
cuse. 

(5.)  Sometimes  also,  instead  of  a  partitive  genitive,  an 
ablative  with  ex  or  de,  or  in,  or  an  accusative  with  inter, 
is  used  ;  as :  — 

Nemo  de  els,  no  one  of  them ;  acerrimus  ex  sensibus,  the 
sharpest  of  the  senses ;  primus  inter  omnes,  first  among  all. 

(6.)  Instead  of  a  genitive  of  characteristic  an  ablative 
of  characteristic  (see  411  below)  is  often  used ;  as  :  — 
Homo  antiq.ua  virtute,  a  man  of  old-time  virtue. 

a.  The  genitive  is  used  here  in  questions  of  number,  measure, 
weight,  time,  space,  kind,  etc. ;  as  :  — 

Fllius  ann5rum  novem,  a  son  nine  years  old;  corona 
aurea  parvi  ponderis,  a  golden  wreath  of  little  weight ; 
hums  modi  quaestio,  a  question  of  this  sort. 

b.  The  ablative  is  used  of  physical  and  external  character- 
istics ;  as  :  — 

Agesilaus  statura  fuit  humili  et  corpore  exiguS,  Agesi- 
laus  was  of  low  stature  and  slight  frame;  homo  maxima 
barba,  a  man  with  a  very  long  beard  ;  flumen  diflicili  tran- 
situ  ripis^e  praeruptis,  a  river  of  difficult  passage  and  steep 
banks. 

c.  Otherwise  the  two  cases  are  used  indifferently. 

NOTE.  For  the  idiomatic  accusative,  in  a  few  expressions,  instead  of  a 
genitive  of  characteristic,  see  398,  6,  below.  For  the  genitive  with  opus 
and  usus,  see  417,  a,  below. 

GENITIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES. 

359.  (1.)  The  genitive  may  be  used  to  complete  the 
meaning  of  certain  adjectives. 


206  SYNTAX. 

(2.)  In  classical  Latin  these  are  chiefly  adjectives  de- 
noting DESIRE,  KNOWLEDGE,  MEMORY,  PARTICIPATION, 
POWER,  FULLNESS,  LIKENESS,  and  their  opposites. 

360.  The  adjectives   most   commonly  used  with   the 
genitive  are  — 

avid  us,  greedy.  memor,  mindful. 

cupidus,  eager.  immemor,  unmindful. 

studidsus,  zealous.  particeps,  sharing  in. 

fastldiosus,  squeamish.  compos,  having  control  over. 

griarus,  knowing.  consors,  partaking. 

tgnarus,  ignorant.  expers,  having  no  part  in. 

perltus,  skilled.  inops,  needy. 

imperitus,  unskilled.  Insuetus,  unaccustomed. 

prudens,  discreet.  Insolens,  unaccustomed. 

imprudejis,  indiscreet.  plenus,  full. 

providus,  foreseeing.  inanis,  empty. 

conscius,  conscious  of.  similis,  like. 

inscius,  ignorant.  adfmis,  allied  to. 

rudis,  untaught. 
Thus :  - 

Avidus  laudis.  eager  for  praise  ;  memor  virtutis,  mindful  of 
valor ;  plena  timoris,  full  of  fear ;  similis  patris,  like  his 
father;  etc. 

a.  Sallust  and  Livy  began  to  use  the  genitive  with  adjectives 
more  freely,  and  the  Augustan  poets  spread  the  construction  very 
widely  ;  cf.  integer  vitae,  pure  of  life  (Hor.)  ;  incertus  senten- 
tiae,  unstable  in  opinion. 

For  animi,  etc.,  with  adjectives,  see  426,  6. 

361.  Participles  in  -ns  from  transitive  verbs,  when  used 
as  adjectives  and  thus  denoting  ENDURING  qualities,  often 
take  a  genitive,  while  in  their  participial  use  they  take  the 
accusative.     Thus  :  — 

Epamiriondas  erat  adeo  veritatis  diligens  ut  ne  ioco 
quidem  mentiretur,  Epaminondas  was  so  devoted  to  truth  that 
he  would  not  lie  even  in  jest;  semper  adpetentes  gloriae 


GENITIVE   WITH   ADJECTIVES   AND   VERBS.  207 

fuistis,  you  have  always  been  eager  for  glory ;  but  mare,  ter- 
rain adpetens,  aiming  at  possession  of  the  sea  and  land  (on  a 
given  occasion). 

Kindred  Constructions. 

362.  Instead  of  a  genitive,  many  of  these  adjectives 
sometimes  take  other  constructions  ;  as  :  — 

(1.)  An  accusative  with  a  preposition.     Thus :  — 
Avidus  in  direptiones,  greedy   for  expeditions  of   plunder 
(Livy). 

(2.)  An  ablative  with  a  preposition.     Thus :  — 

Perltus  de  agricultura,  skilled  in  husbandry  (Varro). 

(3.)  An  ablative  of  specification  (see  412).    Thus :  — 

Praestans  ingenio,  preeminent  in  natural  endowment  (Cic.). 

(4.)  A  dative.     Thus :  — 

Lupd  similis,  like  a  wolf. 

a.  Similis  and  dissimilis  seem  to  be  used  by  Cicero  with  the 
genitive  usually  in  speaking  of  persons,  with  the  dative  always 
in  speaking  of  things. 

GENITIVE  WITH  VERBS. 

363.  The  genitive  is  also  used  with  several  classes  of 
verbs,  as  follows  :  — 

364.  (1.)  Verbs   denoting  PITY  —  as  misereor  and 
miseresco  —  take  the  genitive.     Thus  :  — 

Miseremini  sociorum,  have  pity  for  your  allies  (Cic.)  ;  mise- 
rescite  regis,  pity  the  king  (Verg.). 

(2.)  The  impersonals  miseret,  paenitet,  piget,  pudet, 
and  taedet,  take  the  genitive  of  the  object  towards  which 
the  feeling  is  exercised,  and  the  accusative  of  the  person 
who  has  the  feeling.  Thus :  — 

Mea  mater,  tul  me  miseret,  mei  piget,  mother,  I  pity 
you  and  am  disgusted  with  myself  (Accius)  ;  eos  ineptidrum 
paenitet,  they  repent  of  their  follies  (Cic.)  ;  me  civitdtis 


208  SYNTAX. 

morum  piget  taedet^we,  I  ain  disgusted  and  weary  with  the 
manners  of  the  state  (Sail.). 

365.  Verbs  of  REMEMBERING  and  FORGETTING  —  as  me- 
mini,  reminiscor,  oblivlscor  —  take  the  genitive.    Thus :  — - 

Memirii  vivomm,  I  remember  the  living  (Cic.)  ;  reminisci 
veteris  famae,  to  bear  in  mind  the  old  reputation  (Nep.);  mill- 
riarum  oblivlscor -,  I  forget  injuries  (Nep.). 

a.  One  verb  of  pitying  and  one  of  remembering  commonly 
take  the  accusative  ;  namely,  miserarl  and  recordarl  (both  depo- 
nents of  the  first  conjugation). 

b.  Other  verbs  of  these  classes  occasionally  take  the  accusative, 
especially  of  a  neuter  pronoun. 

366.  Verbs  of  REMINDING  and  WARNING  take  a  geni- 
tive  of    the   thing   with    an   accusative  of    the    person. 
Thus  :  — 

Admonebat  alium  egestatis,  alium  cupiditatis  suae,  he  would 
remind  one  of  his  want  of  money,  another  of  his  pet  passion 
(Sail.). 

367.  Verbs  of  ACCUSING,   CONVICTING,  CONDEMNING, 
and  ACQUITTING,  take  a  genitive  of  the  crime  or  of  the 
penalty.     Thus :  — 

Miltiades  accusatus  est  proditionis,  Miltiades  was  ac- 
cused of  treachery ;  Cicero  Verrem  avaritiae  nimiae  coarguit, 
Cicero  accused  Verres  of  excessive  greed ;  iam  me  ipse  iner- 
tiae  condemno,  I  already  condemn  myself  for  my  inactivity ; 
Caelius  iudex  absolvit  iniuriarum  eum,  qui  Lucilium  laese- 
rat,  Caelius  as  juryman  voted  to  acquit  of  wrong  the  man  who 
had  injured  Lucilius. 

a.  The  genitive  is  used  to  indicate  the  penalty  when  it  is  an 
indefinite  sum  of  money  as  a  fine.  The  genitives  capitis,  pecu- 
niae,  capitalis  poenae,  voti,  and  some  others,  are  also  used  in  a 
sort  of  midway  sense  between  charge  and  penalty.  Thus :  — 

Quanti  est  damriatm,  how  much  was  he  fined  ?  capitis 
hominem  innocentem  condemnarunt,  they  condemned  a  guiltless 
man. to  death  (cf.  Cic.,  de  Or.,  i.,  54,  233). 


GENITIVE   WITH   VERBS.  209 

b.  The  penalty  is  otherwise  expressed  by  the  ablative  (always 
with  multare  or  when  it  is  &  fixed  sum  of  money  as  a  fine),  or 
by  ad  or  in  with  an  accusative,  and,  in  the  poets,  rarely  by  a 
dative. 

c.  The  verbs  of  the  last  two  classes   (366  and   367)   some- 
times take,  instead  of  the  genitive,  an  ablative  with  de  or  the 
accusative  of  a  neuter  pronoun.     Thus  :  — 

De  aede  Telluris  me  admones,  you  remind  me  about  the 
temple  of  the  Earth  (Cic.)  ;  eos  h6c  moneo,  I  warn  them  of 
this  (Cic.)  ;  accusare  de  neglegentia,  to  accuse  of  negligence 
(Cic.)  ;  de  vi  condemnafl  sunt,  they  were  condemned  for  vio- 
lence (Cic.)  ;  si  id  me  rion  accusas,  if  you  do  not  accuse  me  of 
this  (Plaut.).* 

d.  Some  verbs  of  accusing,  etc.,  take  simply  the  accusative  of 
the  crime  instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  person  with  the  geni- 
tive of  the  crime.     So  especially  carpo,  culpo,  criminor,  punio, 
reprekendo,  and  some  less  common  verbs. 

Interest  and  Refert. 

368.  The  impersonal  verbs  interest  and  refert  take  a 
genitive  of  the  person  (or  personified  thing)  whose  in- 
terest they  denote.     Thus :  — 

Interest  omnium  recte  facere,  to  do  right  is  everybody's 
concern  (Cic.). 

Refert  omnium  animadvert!  in  maids,  all  men  are  inter- 
ested in  having  the  bad  punished  (Tac.). 

a.  So  far  as  there  is  a  difference  in  the  two  verbs,  refert  ap- 
plies rather  to  outside  or  material  things,  interest  to  matters  of 
the  mind  or  character.  Cf.  the  examples. 

NOTE.  This  genitive  seems  to  have  started  with  interest  as  a  sort  of 
predicative  genitive  of  possession  (patris  interest  =  it  is  among-  a  father's 
possessions'),  and  then  to  have  been  transferred  to  refert  through  the  anal- 
ogy in  the  meanings  of  the  verbs. 

369.  Instead  of  the  genitive  of  the  personal  pronouns, 

*  With  verbs  of  accusing,  etc.,  the  neuter  pronoun  in  the  accusative  is 
mostly  found  in  the  dramatic  poets. 


210  SYNTAX. 

the  ablative  singular  feminine  of  the  corresponding  pos- 
sessives  is  used.     Thus  :  — 

Tua  et  mea  maxime  interest,  te  valere,  it  is  very  greatly 
for  the  interest  of  both  you  and  myself  that  you  should  be  well 
(Cic.)  ;  mea  nihil  refert,  it  is  of  no  concern  to  me  (Ter.). 

a.  The  ablative  feminine  of  the  possessive  pronoun  is  com- 
mon with  refert  :  the  genitive  construction  is  said  to  occur  be- 
fore Livy  only  in  one  instance  in  Sallust  (lug..  Ill)    Cicero 
prefers  interest  to  refert,  and  uses  it  with  either  construction  in- 
differently. 

NOTE.  The  origin  of  this  ablative  construction  is  still  in  dispute.  It 
seems  most  probable  that  the  construction  started  with  refert  as  mea  re 
fert,  equivalent  to  e  mea.  re  fert,  it  points  in  the  direction  of  my  interests, 
(cf.  e  re  publicd  est,  it  is  in  accordance  with  the  interests  of  the  state), 
and  was  then  transferred  to  interest.  But  see  J.  H.  Schmalz,  in  Handbook 
der  Altertumswiss.,  ii.,  271. 

b.  Instead  of  the  above  constructions  is  sometimes  found  ad 
witli  an  accusative,  and  very  rarely  a  simple  accusative  or  a 
dative.     Thus :  — 

Ad  horiorem  meum  interest,  it  concerns  my  reputation  (Cic.)  ; 
quid  te  igitur  rettulit,  of  what  concern  was  that  to  you  ? 
(Plaut.) 

370.  (1.)  The  degree  of  interest  is  expressed  by  an 
adverb  or  the  accusative  singular  neuter  of  an  adjective 
(used  adverbially),  or,  if  there  is  no  genitive  of  the  person 
interested,  by  a  genitive  (of  price ;  see  371). 

(2.)  That  which  causes  the  interest  is  expressed  by  a 
clause  as  the  subject  of  the  verb  or  in  apposition  with  a 
neuter  pronoun  which  serves  as  subject.  Jtefert  also 
sometimes  takes  a  personal  subject.  Thus :  — 

Maxime  interest,  quern  ad  modum  quaeque  res  audiatur,  it 
makes  the  greatest  difference,  how  each  point  is  received ; 
multum  interest  rel  familiaris  tuae,  te  quam  primum  venire, 
it  is  of  much  importance  for  your  property  that  you  come  as 
soon  as  possible  ;  quod  permagni  interest,  pro  necessdrio  saepe 
habetur,  what  is  of  great  advantage  is  often  regarded  as  neces- 
sary. 


GENITIVE   OF   PRICE.  —  DATIVE.  211 

For  the  genitive  instead  of  an  ablative  with  verbs  of  ceasing  or  freeing 
from,  see  414  ;  with  verbs  of  plenty,  see  409;  vfithpotior,  see  419,  b ; 
for  the  locative  animi  with  verbs  of  emotion,  see  426,  6. 

GENITIVE   OF  PRICE. 

371.  The  genitive  is  used  to  denote  indefinite  price  or 
value.     Thus :  — 

Voluptatem  virtus  minimi  facit,  virtue  holds  pleasure  of 
very  little  value  ;  emi  kortos  tanti,  quantl  volm,  I  bought  the 
grounds  for  the  price  I  wished. 

372.  The  genitives  most  commonly  so  used  are  — 
tanti,  so  much.  permdgni,  } 

quantl,  as  much,  or  how        plurimi,     >-a    a  verv     *£ 

much  ?  maximi,     )      Price* 

pluris,  more.  tantidem,  at  the  same  price. 

minoris,  less.  quantwis,     )  however  much 

minimi,  very  little.  quantilubet,  )       you  please. 

parvi,  little.  quanticumque,  at  whatever 

magrii,  at  a  high  price.  price. 

And  rarely  multi,  much,  and  maidris,  at  a  higher  price. 
a.  In  colloquial  language  also  figuratively  — 
assis,  worth  an  as.  pili,     worth  a  hair. 

floccl,     "      a  bit  of  wool.         pensi,      **     weighing. 
nauct,    "      a  trifle.  terunci,   "     a  copper. 

nihill,    "      nothing. 

And  huius  (indicating  a  gesture  of  disdain). 
For  the  Ablative  of  Price,  see  408. 

DATIVE  (Datwus). 

373.  The  DATIVE  is  used  chiefly  to  indicate  the  person 
or  thing  indirectly  concerned  in  the  action  of  a  verb,  and 
for  other  similar  relations. 

NOTE.     The  uses  of  the  dative  may  be  summarized  as  follows :  — 
Dative  of  Indirect  Object.  Dative  of  Possessor. 

Dative  of  Advantage  or  Disadvantage.    Dative  of  Service. 
Ethical  Dative.  Dative  with  Adjectives. 

Dative  of  Agent.  Dative  with  other  Parts  of  Speech. 


212  SYNTAX. 


DATIVE  OF  INDIRECT  OBJECT. 

374.  The  dative  expressing  the  INDIRECT  OBJECT  may 
be  used  — 

(1.)   With  intransitive  verbs.     Thus:  — 

Mea  domus  tibl  patet,  my  house  is  open  to  you  (Cic.)  ;  licet 
nemini  contra  patriam  ducere  exercitum,  no  one  has  a  right  to 
lead  an  army  against  his  country  (Cic.). 

(2.)  With  transitive  verbs  in  addition  to  the  direct  object. 
Thus  :  — 

Hoc  tibi  promltto,  I  promise  you  this  (Cic.) ;  mihi  respon- 
sum  dedit,  he  gave  me  the  answer  (Verg.). 

375.  Several  classes  of  verbs  which  seein  transitive  in 
English  are  intransitive  in  Latin,  and  therefore  take  their 
object  in  the  dative. 

376.  Such  are  most  verbs  meaning  to  FAVOR,  PLEASE, 
TRUST,  BELIEVE,  HELP,  and  their  opposites ;  also  to  COM- 
MAND,   OBEY,    SERVE,    RESIST,    ENVY,   THREATEN,    SPARE, 
PARDON,  BE  ANGRY,  etc.      Thus  :  — 

Ilia  tibl  f avet,  she  favors  you  (Ovid)  ;  mihl  placebat  Pom- 
ponius,  Pomponius  pleased  me  (Cic.)  ;  qitl  sibi  fid.it.  he  who 
trusts  in  himself  (Hor.) ;  iniurato,  scio,  plus  mihl  credet  quam 
iurato  tibl,  he  will,  I  know,  trust  me  without  an  oath  more  than 
you  upon  oath  (Plaut.,  Am.,  i.,  1,  281)  ;  rwn  licet  sul  com- 
modi  causa  nocere  alter!,  it  is  not  lawful  to  injure  one's  neigh- 
bor for  one's  own  advantage  (Cic.) :  imperat  aut  servit  collecta 
pecunia  cuique,  gathered  gold  commands  or  serves  its  posses- 
sor (lit.,  each  one)  (Hor.)  ;  quotiiam  faction!  inimlcorum  resis- 
tere  negulverit,  since  he  could  not  withstand  the  faction  of  his 
enemies  (Sail.)  ;  non  invidetur  illi  aetatl,  that  time  of  life  is 
not  exposed  to  envy  (Cic.)  ;  mihi  minabatur,  he  threatened 
me  (Cic.)  ;  boms  nocet  quisquis  parcit  malis,  he  wrongs  the 
good  who  spares  the  wicked ;  Irascl  ininiicls,  to  be  angry 
against  one's  enemies  (Caes.). 

a.  luvo,  help,   ar.d   its  compounds  ;  laedo,  injure ;    delecto, 


DATIVE   OF   INDIRECT   OBJECT.  213 

oblecto,  delight,  and  sometimes  other  verbs  of  these  meanings, 
are  treated  as  transitives  and  take  the  accusative.     Thus  : 

Caesar  ad  Lingonas  litteras  nuntiosque  rnlsit,  ne  e5s  fru- 
mento  neve  alia  re  iuvarent,  Caesar  sent  a  letter  and  messages 
to  the  Lingones  [bidding  them]  not  to  aid  them  with  grain  or 
anything  else  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  26)  ;  hie  pulvis  oculum  meum 
laedit,  this  dust  hurts  my  eye. 

377.  (1.)  Verbs  compounded  with  the  prepositions  ad, 
ante,  com,  in,  inter,  ob,  post,  prae,  pro,  sub,  super,  com- 
monly have  intransitive  meanings,  and  therefore  take  a 
dative  of  indirect  object.     Thus  :  — 

Neqiie  enim  adsentior  ils,  for  I  do  not  agree  with  those 
(Cic.,  Am.,  4, 13)  ;  quantum  ndtura  hominis  pecudibus  ante- 
cedit,  as  much  as  man's  nature  has  the  advantage  over  the 
brutes  (Cic.,  Off.,  i.,  30,  105)  ;  omnibus  neg5tiis  rion  inter- 
fuit  solum  sed  praefuit,  he  not  only  took  part  in,  but  presided 
over,  all  the  transactions  (Cic.,  Fam.,  i.,  6)  ;  nee  umquam  suo 
cumbet  inimicis,  nor  will  he  ever  yield  to  his  foes  (Cic., 
Deiot.,  13,  36). 

(2.)  But  not  infrequently  they  are  transitive,  and  then  take 
(like  any  transitive  verb)  a  direct  object  in  the  accusative, 
with  or  without  the  dative  of  indirect  object.  Thus  :  — 

Convocat  milites,  he  calls  together  the  soldiers ;  munus 
obire,  to  perform  a  duty  (Cic.,  Am.,  27) ;  ilium  praefecit  exer- 
citui,  he  set  him  over  the  army. 

(3.)  Sometimes  they  are  used  to  denote  relations  of  PLACE, 
and  then  they  take  a  preposition  with  its  case  instead  of  the 
dative.*  Thus  :  — 

Inferre  signa  in  hostes,  to  march  against  the  enemy;  ad- 
esse  in  senatu,  to  be  at  a  meeting  of  the  senate. 

378.  Several  verbs  take  the  dative  in  one  sense,  the 
accusative  in  another.     Thus,  especially  :  — 

*  This  is  especially  common  with  words  compounded  with  ad  or  in.  When 
used  figuratively  all  these  words  usually  take  the  dative  (or,  if  transitive, 
the  accusative ;  as,  sublre  pericula,  to  undergo  danger). 


Afty" 
UNIVERSITY 


214  SYNTAX. 

WITH  DATIVE.  WITH  ACCUSATIVE. 

mettiere,  )      fear,   be    anxious,  for  be  afraid  of  somebody 

timere,    )         somebody  or    some-  or  something. 

thing. 

cdnsulere,      take  counsel  for.  ask  advice  of,  consult. 

prospicere, ) 

_   .  7-        >•  provide  for.  foresee. 

providere,  fF 

cavere,  take  care  for,  guard.  guard  against. 

moderari,      control.  regulate,  arrange. 

temperare,     restrain,  temper  (by  mixing). 

379.  Dono,   present,   circumdo,    surround,    and    ad- 
spergo,  sprinkle  or  scatter  upon,  take  either  a  dative  of 
the  person  with  an  accusative  of  the  thing,  or  an  accusa- 
tive of  the  person  with  an  ablative  of  the  thing.    Thus :  — 

Mini  librum  donavit,  he  presented  a  book  to  me ;  me  Iibr5 
donavit,  he  presented  me  with  a  book. 

Urbi  murum  circumdat,  he  puts  a  wall  round  the  city ;  ur- 
bem  mur5  circumdat,  he  surrounds  the  city  with  a  wall. 

Arae  sanguinem  adspergit,  he  sprinkles  blood  upon  the 
altar ;  aram  sanguine  adspergit,  he  sprinkles  the  altar  with 
blood. 

380.  Many  verbs  compounded  with  #6,  c?e,  ex,  pro,  or 
circum,  and  the  verb  ademo,  take  a  dative  where  an  abla- 
tive of  separation  (see  413)  might  be  expected.    Thus :  — 

Bona  mihi  extorsisti.  you  have  wrung  my  goods  from  me ; 
mulieri  dnulum  detraxit,  he  took  the  ring  from  the  woman 
(L  e.,  her  finger) ;  id  mini  ZJ7,  C.  Verres,  eripuisti  atque 
abstulisti,  this  you  have  robbed  me  of  and  taken  from  me, 
Gaius  Verres  (Cic.,  in  CaecU.,  5,  19). 

a.  The  dative  is  always  used  of  persons  and  sometimes  of 
things.     The  action  is  thus  regarded  as  something  done  to  the 
object. 

b.  But  with  things  the  ablative  with  or  without  a  preposition 
is  perhaps  more  common,  especially  if  an  idea  of  place  is  in- 
volved.    Thus :  — 


DATIVE  OF   ADVANTAGE   OR   DISADVANTAGE.        215 

Ilium  e  periculo  eripuit,  he  snatched,  him  from  the  danger 
(Caes.,  B.  6r.,  iv.,  12). 

DATIVE  OF  ADVANTAGE  OR  DISADVANTAGE 
(Datwus  commodi  vel  incommodi). 

381.  With  many  verbs  the  dative  denotes  the  person 
or  thing  to  whose  advantage  or  disadvantage  something  is 
done.     Thus :  — 

Non  scholae  sed  vitae  dlscimus,  we  learn,  not  for  school, 
but  for  life ;  rion  solum  ndbis  dwites  esse  volumus,  sed  liberis, 
propinquls,  amicis  maximeque  rei  publicae,  not  for  our- 
selves only  do  we  wish  to  be  rich,  but  for  our  children,  rela- 
tives, friends,  and,  most  of  all,  for  the  state. 

a.  So  nubere  alicui,  marry  (lit.,  veil  one's  self  for),  vacare 
alicui  rei,  have  leisure  for,  and  expressions  like  quid  tibi  vis  ? 
what  are  you  after  ?  (lit.  what  do  you  want  for  yourself  ?)  ;  quid 
huic  homini  facias  ?  what  can  you  do  with  (for)  this  fellow  ? 
(But  cf.  412,  a.) 

b.  So  also  the  dative  of  a  participle  in  expressions  defining 
a  place,  as  :  — 

Locum,  qm  nunc  saeptus  descendentibus  inter  duos  lucos 
est,  asylum  aperit,  he  opened  as  a  place  of  refuge  the  spot 
which  you  find  hedged  in  as  you  go  down  between  the  Two 
Groves  (Liv.,  i.,  8,  5). 

ETHICAL  DATIVE  (Dativus  ethicus). 

382.  A  special  variety  of  the  dative  of  advantage  is 
the  use  of  a  personal  pronoun  in  lively  style  to  indicate 
the  person  interested,  where  the  sense  strictly  requires  no 
such  pronoun.     Thus :  — 

Utinam  ille  omnes  secum  suas  copias  eduxisset !  Tongilium 
mihl  eduxit,  would  that  he  had  taken  out  all  his  forces  with 
him  !  He  has  taken  (me)  Tongilius  (Cic.,  Cat.,  ii.,  2,  4)  ;  at 
tibi  repente  paucls  post  diebus  venit  ad  me  Cariinius,  but  a 
few  days  later  Caninius  suddenly  comes  to  me  (Cic.,  Fam.,  ix., 
2,1). 


216  SYNTAX. 

DATIVE  OF  AGE:NT  (Datlvus  agentis). 

383.  With  the  gerundive  and  sum  the  dative  denotes 
the  person  who  has  a  thing  to  do.     Thus :  — 

Adhibenda  est  nobis  diligentia,  we  must  employ  diligence 
(Cic.) ;  certe  mini  verendum  twn  erat,  ne  quid,  hoc  parriclda 
civium  interfecfo,  invidiae  mihl  in  posteritatem  redundaret, 
I  certainly  did  not  have  to  fear  that  if  I  killed  this  murderer 
of  his  countrymen,  any  flood  of  unpopularity  would  rise  up 
about  me  in  the  future  (Cic.,  Cat.,  i.,  12,  29)  ;  nobis,  cum 
semel  occidit  brevis  lux,  nox  eskperpetua  una  dormienda,  we 
have  to  sleep  through  one  long  lasting  night,  when  once  our 
life's  brief  day  is  o'er  (Catull.). 

a.  To  avoid  a  possible  ambiguity,  or  to  give  the  notion  of 
agency  greater  prominence,  the  ablative  with  ab  (a)  must  be 
used  ;  as :  — 

Aguntur  bona  civium,  quibus  est  a  vobis  consulendum, 
citizens'  property  is  involved,  and  you  must  take  measures  for 
its  protection  ;  te  a  me  monendum  esse  puto,  I  think  I 
ought  to  remind  you. 

b.  The  dative  of  agent  is  also  sometimes  used  with  the  tenses 
compounded  with  the  perfect  participle.     Thus  :  — 

ffaec  satis  sint  dicta  nobis,  let  that  which  I  have  said  suf- 
fice (Cic.,  Tim.,  10). 

DATIVE  OF  POSSESSOR. 

384.  The  dative  is  used  with  sum  to  denote  the  POS- 
SESSOR,* —  the  thing  owned  being  the  subject  of  the  verb. 
Thus  :  — 

Sit  mini  mensa  tripes,  let  me  have  a  three-legged  table 
(Hor.,  Sat.,  i.,  3,  13)  ;  est  igitur  homini  cum  deo  similitude, 
man  has  therefore  a  likeness  with  God  (Cic.,  Legg.,  i.,  8,  25). 

a.  The  historians  sometimes  join  volenti,  cupienti,  or  invvto, 
with  such  a  dative,  in  imitation  of  a  Greek  idiom  ;  as  :  — 

*  Cf.  predicate  genitive  of  possession,  357. 


DATIVE   WITH   VERBS,    AND   WITH   ADJECTIVES.      217 

Ut  quibusque  bellum  invitis  aut  cupientibus  erat,  ac- 
cording as  war  was  repugnant  or  acceptable  to  each. 

DATIVE  OF  SERVICE. 

385.  With  many  verbs  the  dative  denotes  the  END  or 
PURPOSE  of  an  action.     Thus  :  — 

Virtus  neque  datur  dono  neque  accipitur,  virtue  is  neither 
given  as  a  gift  nor  received. 

386.  The  dative  of  service  is  most  commonly  joined 
with  another  dative,  especially  a  dative  of  advantage  or 
a  dative  of  possessor  (dative  to  which  and  for  which). 
Thus :  — 

Id  tibl  h.on5ri,  habetui\  that  is  counted  an  honor  to  you 
(Cic.)  ;  mini  mdximae  est  curae,  it  is  a  very  great  anxiety 
to  me  (Cic.)  ;  spero  nobis  hanc  coniunctionem  voluptati/bre, 
I  hope  this  association  will  be  a  pleasure  to  us  (Cic.)  ;  cuibono 
Juit,  whom  did  it  benefit  ?  (lit.,  to  whom  was  it  (for)  a  benefit  ?) 
(Cic.).  (Cf.  331,  1.) 

IMPERSONAL  USE  OF  PASSIVES. 

387.  Verbs  which  take  a  dative  can  be  used  in  the 
passive  only  impersonally,  and  the  dative  is  then  retained. 
Thus :  — 

Mihi  numquam  persuader!  potuit  animos  emori,  I  never 
could  be  persuaded  that  the  soul  perishes ;  invidetur  prae- 
stanti  fiorentlque  fortunae,  prominent  and  flourishing  success 
is  envied. 

DATIVE  WITH  ADJECTIVES. 

388.  The  dative  is  used  with  many  adjectives  to  de- 
note the  object  towards  which  the  quality  is  directed. 

389.  Such  are  especially  adjectives  meaning  USEFUL, 

PLEASANT,  FRIENDLY,  FIT,  LIKE,  INCLINED,  READY,  EASY, 

CLEAR,  EQUAL,  and  their  opposites ;  also  those  meaning 


218  SYNTAX. 

NEAR,  many  compounded  with  com-,  and   adjectives  in 
-bills.     Thus :  — 

Felix  tuis,  gracious  to  your  adherents  (Verg.)  ;  or  at  id  in- 
grata  Gallls,  a  speech  unpleasing  to  the  Gauls  (Caes.)  ;  nihtt 
tarn  est  Lysiae  diversum  quam  Isocrates,  nothing  is  so  differ- 
ent from  Lysias  as  Isocrates  ;  patri  similis,  like  his  father 
(Cic.)  ;  promptus  seditionl,  ready  for  insurrection  (Tac.)  ; 
cuivis  facile  est,  it  is  easy  for  anybody  (Ter.) ;  falsa  veris 
finitima  sunt,  the  false  is  next  door  to  the  true  (Cic.)  ;  mors 
est  terribilis  iis,  quorum  cum  vita  omnia  exstinguuntur,  death 
is  terrible  to  those  who  lose  all  things  when  they  lose  their  life 
(Cic.,  Par.,  ii.). 

390.  Instead  of  the  dative,  many  of  these  adjectives  are 
also  used  with  a  preposition  and  its  case.  Especially  :  — 

(1.)  Adjectives  meaning  USEFUL  or  FIT,  and  their  opposites, 
take  an  accusative  with  ad  when  they  mean  useful  FOR,  fit  FOR, 
etc.,  the  dative  being  commoner  if  they  mean  useful  TO,  etc. 
Thus:  — 

Utttis  agris,  beneficial  to  the  fields  (Juv.)  ;  homo  ad  nullam 
rem  utilis,  a  man  useful  for  nothing  (Cic.). 

(2.)  Adjectives  implying  MOTION  or  TENDENCY  more  com- 
monly take  the  accusative  with  a  preposition.     Thus  :  — 
Pronus  ad  fidem,  readily  inclined  to  faithfulness  (Liv.). 

(3.)  Adjectives  of  FEELING  often  have  an  accusative  with 
in,  erga,  or  adversus.  Thus  :  — 

Mater  acerba  in  suos  partus,  a  mother  harsh  to  her  own 
offspring  (Ovid) ;  grains  erga  me,  grateful  towards  me  (Cic.)  ; 
,  gratum  adversus  te,  grateful  towards  you  (Cic.). 

(4.)  Propior  and  proximus  sometimes  take  an  accusative, 
like  the  primitive  prope.  Thus  :  — 

Quod  vitium  propius  virtutem  erat,  and  this  fault  was 
pretty  nearly  a  virtue  (Sail.)  ;  P.  Crassus  proximus  mare 
Oceanum  hiemarat,  Publius  Crassus  had  wintered  close  by  the 
ocean  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  iii.,  7). 

Cf.  also  362. 


DATIVE  AND  ACCUSATIVE  CASES.  219 

DATIVE  WITH  OTHER  PARTS  OF  SPEECH. 

391.  The  dative  is  sometimes  found  with  other  parts 
of  speech,  to  express  the  same  sort  of  relation  as  with 
verbs  or  adjectives.  Thus  :  — 

(1.)  With  adverbs: 

Congruenter  naturae  convenienter^we  vivere,  to  live  in 
harmony  and  agreement  with  nature  (Cic.)  ;  proxime  castris, 
next  the  camp  (Caes.,  B.  C.,  i.,  72,  5). 

(2.)  With  a  few  (verbal)  nouns  :  — 

Obtemperdtio  legibus,  obedience  to  the  laws  (Cic.,  Legg.,  i., 
15)  ;  invidia  consult,  envy  towards  the  consul  (Sail.). 

(3.)  With  interjections  :  — 

Vae  victls !  no  quarter !  (lit.,  woe  to  the  vanquished)  ;  hei 
tnihl  misero  !  alas !  unhappy  me ! 

(4.)  The  compound  expression  dicto  audiens,  obedient, 
takes  a  second  dative,  as  :  — 

Dict5  audientes  esse  regi  debebant,  they  ought  to  be  obe- 
dient to  their  king. 

ACCUSATIVE  (Accusatwus). 
NOTE.     The  uses  of  the  accusative  may  be  summarized  as  follows :  — 

Accusative  of  Direct  Object. 

f  Verbs  of  Making,  etc. 
Two  Accusatives  <      "       "  Asking,  etc. 

(      "       compounded  with  Trans,  etc. 
Accusative  with  Middle  Voice. 
Cognate  Accusative. 
Adverbial  Accusative. 

Accusative  of  Specification  (Syneedochical). 
Accusative  with  Verbal  Nouns. 
Accusative  in  Exclamations. 
Subject  Accusative. 
Accusative  of  Time. 
"  "  Place. 

with  Prepositions. 


220  SYNTAX. 

ACCUSATIVE  OF  DIRECT  OBJECT. 

392.  The  accusative  is  used  especially  to  denote  the 
person  or  thing  directly  affected  by  an  action.     There- 
fore only  transitive  verbs  have  an  object  in  the  accusative. 
Thus  :  — 

Legates  mittunt,  they  send  ambassadors  (Caes.)  ;  animus 
movet  corpus,  the  mind  moves  the  body  (Cic.)  ;  da  veniam 
hanc,  grant  this  indulgence  (Ter.). 

NOTE.  Many  verbs  are  transitive  in  Latin  -which  are  intransitive  in 
English.  Indeed,  in  early  Latin  very  many  verbs  which  were  afterwards 
used  with  other  constructions  could  take  an  accusative,  the  accusative  fill- 
ing with  regard  to  the  verb  the  same  place  which  a  genitive  fills  towards 
the  noun  it  modifies. 

393.  The  accusative  of  the  active  voice  becomes  the 
subject-nominative  of  the  passive  voice.     Thus  :  — 

Legates  mlttunt  ;  legati  iriittuntur. 

a.  Verbs  therefore  which  admit  no  accusative   can  be  used 
in  the  passive  only  impersonally.      (Cf.  387,  and  194.) 

b.  Occasionally  the  subject  of  a  dependent  clause  is  antici- 
pated in  the  main  clause  as  the  object  of  its  verb,  though  this 
is  much  less  common  than  in  Greek.     Thus  :  — 

Meam  uxorem  .  .  .  nescis,  quails  sit,  you  don't  know 
what  sort  of  a  person  my  wife  is  (Plaut.,  Asin.,  59). 

NOTE.  The  anticipated  subject  is  sometimes  in  otiher  constructions  than 
that  of  object-accusative  ;  as  :  — 

Quldam  saepe  in  parva  pecunia  perspiciuntur  quam  sint 
leves,  it  is  often  shown  in  small  matters  of  money  what  weak 
characters  some  people  have  (Cic.,  Am.,  17,  63). 

Two  ACCUSATIVES. 

394.  Certain   classes  of   verbs   take  two   accusatives. 
Thus :  — 

(1.)  Many  verbs  which  in  the  passive  voice  take  a  predi- 
cate nominative  (of.  328,  3),  especially  verbs  meajiing  to 

MAKE,  CALL,  CHOOSE,  RENDER,  ESTEEM,  RECKON.    Thus  : 

Me  consulem  fecistis,  you  have  made   me   consul  (Cic.)  ; 


TWO   ACCUSATIVES. 

Tram  bene  Ennius  initium  dixit  insaniae,  Ennius  has  well 
called  anger  the  beginning  of  madness  (Cic.)  ;  Sulpicium  ac- 
cusatorem  suum  numerabat  rion  competltorem,  he  reck- 
oned Sulpicius  his  accuser,  not  his  rival  (Cic.,  Mur.,  24,  49). 

a.  One  accusative  is  the  direct  object,  the  other  a  predicate 
accusative. 

b.  Instead  of  the  predicate  accusative  the  same  "  kindred 
constructions  "  sometimes  occur  as  for  a  predicate  nominative 
(see  331  above).     Cf.  also  the  following  :  — 

Fortuna  me,  qui  liber  fueram,  servom  fecit,  e  summo  in- 
fimuni,  fortune  has  made  me  who  was  free  a  slave,  [changing 
me]  from  the  highest  to  the  lowest  (Plant.). 

(2.)  Verbs  of  ASKING,  DEMANDING,  TEACHING,  and 
celare,  to  hide,  take  an  accusative  of  the  person  with 
another  accusative  of  the  thing.  Thus  :  — 

Hoc  te  vehementer  rogo,  this  I  ask  you  urgently  (Cic.)  ; 
posce  deos  veniam,*  ask  indulgence  of  the  gods  (Verg.) ; 
cum  legent  quis  musicam  docuerit  Epamlnondam,  when 
they  read  who  taught  Epaminondas  music  (Nep.)  ;  Antigonus 
iter  oranes  celat,  Antigonus  hides  his  journey  from  all  (Nep.). 

a.  The  following  verbs  of  asking   (and  occasionally  others) 
take  an    ablative  with  ab,  de,  or  ex,  instead  of  the  accusative 
of  the  person :  exigere,  petere,  postuldre,  (ab)  ;  quaerere,  (ex  or 
de)  ;  scltari,  sciscitarl.     Thus  :  — • 

Pacem  ab  R5manis  petere,  to  ask  peace  of  the  Romans 
(Caes.). 

b.  Instead  of  the  accusative  of  the  thing,  an  ablative  with  de, 
or  with  verbs  of  teaching  an  ablative  of  means  (see  407,  b),  is 
sometimes  used.     Thus  :  — 

Sic  ego  te  eisdem  de  rebus  interrogem,  I  would  thus  ques- 
tion you  on  the  same  points  (Cic.)  ;  de  itinere  hostium  sena- 
tum  edocet,  he  informs  the  senate  of  the  enemy's  march  (Sail.)  ; 
Bassus  noster  me  de  hoc  libro  celavit,  my  friend  Bassus 

*  The  difference  in  sense  between  the  two  accusatives  here  and  in  ex- 
pressions like  filiam  tuam  mihl  uxorem  posed,  I  ask  your  daughter  as 
wife,  should  be  observed. 


222  SYNTAX. 

kept  me  in  ignorance  about  this  book  (Cic.)  ;  cdiquem  fidibus 
docere,  to  teach  some  one  [to  play  on]  the  lyre  (Cic.). 

c.  In  the  passive  the  accusative  of  the  person  becomes  sub- 
ject and  the  accusative  of  the  thing  remains  ;  as  :  — 

Rogatus  est  sententwin,  he  was  asked  his  opinion. 

(3.)  Verbs  compounded  with  trdns^  ad^  or  circum 
sometimes  take  two  accusatives,  one  depending  upon  the 
verb,  the  other  upon  the  preposition.  Thus  :  — 

Omnem  equitatum  pontem  transducit,  he  led  all  his  cav- 
alry across  the  bridge  (Caes.)  ;  Petreius  ius  mrandum  adigit 
Afranium,  Petreius  bound  Afranius  by  an  oath  (Caes.)  ;  Ros- 
cillum  Pompeius  omnia  sua  praesidia  circumduxit,  Pom- 
pey  took  Roscillus  all  around  his  garrisons  (Caes.). 

ACCUSATIVE  WITH  MIDDLE  VOICE. 

395.  A  few  verbs,  seemingly  deponent  or  passive  but 
really  remnants  of  a  middle  voice  (see  193,  «),  take  an 
accusative  of  direct  object.     Thus :  — 

Priamus  inutile  ferrum  cingitur,  Priam  girds  on  his  un- 
availing sword  (Verg.)  ;  viridl  membra  sub  arbuto  stratus, 
stretching  his  limbs  under  a  green  arbutus  tree  (Hor.,  Odes,  i.,  1). 

a.  This  construction  is  especially  common  with  certain  perfect 
participles,  as  in  the  second  example. 

COGNATE  ACCUSATIVE. 

396.  Some  verbs  not  otherwise  transitive  take,  as  in 
English,  an  accusative  with  a  meaning  kindred  to  their 
own  (Cognate  Accusative).     Thus :  — 

Vltam  iucundam  vivere,  to  live  a  merry  life  (Plaut.)  ;  iu- 
ravl  verissimum  ius  iurandum,  I  have  sworn  an  inviolable 
oath  (Cic.). 

a.  The  cognate  accusative  usually  has  an  adjective  agreeing 
with  it,  as  in  the  examples. 

b.  The  degree  in  which  the  meanings  of  the  verb  and  the  ac- 
cusative are  kindred  varies  a  good  deal.     In  the  poets  the  con- 


ACCUSATIVE   CASE.  223 

struction  became  pretty  widely  expanded.     Cf .  the  following  ex- 
amples :  — 

Colre  sorietatem,  to  form  an  alliance  (Cic.,  Rose.  Am.,  7,  20)  ; 
vincere  indicium,*  to  win  a  suit ;  saltare  Cycldpa,  to  dance  the 
Cyclops  (Hor.,  Sat.,  i.,  5,  63)  ;  bacchanalia  vwere,  to  live  a 
riotous  life  (luv.,  ii.,  3). 

ADVERBIAL  ACCUSATIVE. 

397.  The  adverbial  use  of  the  accusative  to  denote  in 
what  respect  or  to  what  degree  an  action  is  exerted,  is 
really  a  variety  of  cognate  accusative.     Thus  :  — 

Nihil  labord,  I  have  no  difficulty ;  illud  valde  tibi  adsentior, 
on  that  point  I  agree  with  you  emphatically  (Cic.)  ;  Suebi 
maximam  partem  lacte  atque  pecore  vwunt,  the  Suebi  live 
for  the  most  part  on  milk  and  meat. 

ACCUSATIVE  OF  SPECIFICATION. 

398.  The  accusative  is  sometimes  used  to  specify  the 
part  to  which  the  meaning  of  a  verb  or  an  adjective  ap- 
plies.    Thus :  — 

Equus  tremit  artus,  the  horse  trembles  in  his  limbs  (Verg.)  ; 
clari  genus,  illustrious  in  birth  (Tac.)  ;  animum  incensus, 
fired  in  his  soul  (Liv.). 

a.  This  construction  is  also  called  the  SYNECDOCHICAL  accu- 
sative.    It  is  rare  except  in  the  poets,  and  is  chiefly  confined  to 
the  parts  of  the  body.     The  use  treated  under  395  is  often 
wrongly  regarded  as  accusative  of  specification. 

b.  Here  belongs  perhaps  the  idiomatic  use  of  the  accusative 
in  such  expressions  as  :  — 

Scls  me  aliquid  id  genus  solitum  scrlbere,  you  know  I  am 
in  the  habit  of  writing  something  of  the  sort ;  id  aetatis,  of  or 
at  that  age  ;  id  temporis,  at  that  time. 

ACCUSATIVE  WITH  VERBAL  NOUNS,  ETC. 

399.  Some   verbal   nouns   and  verbal   adjectives   in 

*  This  is  a  direct  imitation  of  the  Greek. 


224  SYNTAX. 

-bundus  take  an  accusative,  like  the  transitive  verbs  from 
which  they  are  derived.  Thus :  — 

Quid  tibi  hue  receptio  ad  te  est  meum  virum,  wherefore 
do  you  receive  my  husband  hither  to  you  ?  (Plaut.)  ;  Hanrio 
vitabundus  castra  hostium  consules^we,  Hanno  shunning 
the  consuls  and  the  camp  of  the  enemy  (Liv.). 

a.  This  use  is  chiefly  confined  to  colloquial  and  late  Latin. 

ACCUSATIVE  IN  EXCLAMATIONS. 

400.  In  exclamations  the  noun  or  pronoun  which  marks 
the  object  of  the  feeling  is  put  in  the  accusative,  with  or 
without  an  interjection.     Thus :  — 

Horn  in  em  gravem  et  civem  egregium  !  a  solid  man  and 
admirable  citizen  (Cic.)  ;  miseram  me  (Ter.)  ;  pro  deum  homi- 
numque  fidem,  by  the  honor  of  gods  and  men  (Cic.)  ;  en 
quattuor  aras,  lo  four  altars  !  (Verg.). 

SUBJECT  ACCUSATIVE. 

401.  The  subject  of  an  infinitive  is  put  in  the  accusa- 
tive.    Thus :  — 

Moleste  Pompeium  id  ferre  constabat,  it  was  believed  that 
Pompey  took  that  to  heart  (Cic.)  ;  campos  iubet  esse  patentes, 
orders  that  the  fields  be  open  (Verg.). 

For  the  subject  of  the  Historical  Infinitive  see  530,  a. 

For  the  accusative  with  propior  and  proximus,  see  390,  4. 

For  the  accusative  with  prepositions,  see  429,  431. 

For  the  accusative  in  constructions  of  Place  and  Time,  see  423,  425  ff. 

VOCATIVE  (Voeatlvus). 

402.  The  VOCATIVE  is  used  only  to  address  a  person 
or  thing.     Thus :  — 

Vinc&re  scis,  Hannibal,  victoria  uti  riescis,  you  know  how- 
to  conquer,  Hannibal,  but  you  know  not  how  to  make  use  of 
victory  ;  Qulntili  Vare,  legiones  redde,  Quintilius  Varus,  give 
back  [my]  legions ;  o  fortunate  adulescens,  qul  tuae  virtu- 


VOCATIVE   AND   ABLATIVE   CASES.  225 

tis  Homerum  praeconem  inveneris  !  O  happy  youth,  who  hast 
found  a  herald  of  thy  valor  in  Homer !   (Cic.,  Arch.,  10,  24). 

a.  The  interjection  o  !  is  used  in  prose  only  for  deeply  emo- 
tional address,  as  in  the  last  example. 

b.  Other  interjections  are  sometimes  used,  especially  pro  !  in 
calling  upon  the  gods.     Thus  :  — 

Pro  sancte  luppiter  !  O  holy  Jupiter  ! 

c.  A  predicate  word  is  sometimes  in  the  Augustan  poets  made 
to  agree  with  a  vocative  instead  of  the  nominative.     Thus :  — 

Quibus,  Hector,  ab  orts,  exspectate  vems,  from  what  shores, 
Hector,  dost  thou,  long  looked  for,  come  ?  (Verg.,  Ae.,  ii.,  282). 

NOTE.  Properly  speaking1,  the  vocative  is  hardly  a  case  at  all.  The 
similarity  of  its  function  with  that  of  the  nominative,  both  serving  to  name 
an  object,  accounts  for  the  identity  of  form  which,  except  in  the  singular 
of  masculine  and  feminine  O-  stems  with  nominatives  in  -US,  is  everywhere 
shown  by  the  two  cases.  (See  90,  3.) 

ABLATIVE  (Abldtwus). 

403.  The  ABLATIVE  may  be  called  the  adverbial  case, 
that  is,  it  expresses  various  modifications  of  the  predicate 
which  in  English  are  expressed  by  adverbs  or  by  preposi- 
tional phrases.*  It  is  therefore  used  chiefly  with  verbs 
and  adjectives. 

NOTE.  To  a  still  greater  degree  than  with  the  other  oblique  cases  is  it 
difficult  to  trace  any  single  principle  in  the  various  uses  of  the  ablative. 
It  has  been  a  common  theory  that  the  original  use  was  to  denote  separa- 
tion, but  the  better  opinion  is  that  such  is  not  the  case.  In  the  following 
arrangement  each  of  the  first  two  groups  contains  uses  which  seem  pretty 
nearly  allied  to  each  other,  though  it  will  be  observed  that  the  last 
member  of  the  first  group  (ablative  of  plenty)  might  just  as  well  be 
reckoned  in  the  second  group.  The  special  uses  comprising  group  3  can 
all  be  traced  to  individual  uses  under  groups  1  and  2.  The  last  group 
contains  those  uses  in  which  it  is  most  difficult  to  trace  any  bond  of  con- 
nection. 

*  The  ablative  had  absorbed  into  itself  the  uses  of  the  old  instrumental 
and  most  of  those  of  the  locative.  We  have  seen  (90,  note)  that  some 
of  its  forms  are  derived  from  these  cases.  The  other  uses  of  the  loca- 
tive passed  over  to  the  genitive  or  the  dative. 


226  SYNTAX. 

USES  OF  THE  ABLATIVE. 

1.  Ablative  of  Cause. 

Source. 

Agent. 

Means  or  Instrument. 

Way  by  which. 

Price. 

Plenty. 

Manner  or  Accompaniment. 

Characteristic  or  Quality. 

2.  Ablative  of  Specification. 

Separation. 

Want 

Degree  of  Difference. 

With  Comparatives. 

{  Opus  and  Usus. 

|  Dignus,  etc. 

3.  Ablative  in  certain  special  expressions  -I  Utor,  Fruor,  etc. 

Nitor,  etc. 
[Adsuesco,  etc. 

4.  Ablative  Absolute. 

of  Time. 
"  Place, 
with  Prepositions. 

ABLATIVE  OF  CAUSE  (Abldtwus  causae). 

404.  The  ablative  indicates  the  CAUSE  of  a  thing  in 
the  widest  sense.  It  thus  indicates  — 

(1.)  An  external  cause  ;  as :  — 

Hostes  frumentl  inopia  conLoquium  petwerunt,  the  enemy 
asked  for  a  conference,  on  account  of  their  want  of  grain. 

(2.)  An  internal  cause  ;  as :  — 

Noll  putdre  pigritia  me  id  facere,  do  not  think  that  I  do 
so  from  laziness. 

(3.)  That  in  consequence  of  which  or  in  accordance 
with  which  something  takes  place  ;  as  :  — 

Diversis  duobus  vitiis,  avaritia  et  liixuria,  civitds  Ro- 
mano, laborabat,  the  Roman  state  was  suffering  from  two  oppo- 
site defects,  greed  and  extravagance ;  amicl  amworum  dolore 


ABLATIVE   OF   CAUSE,   AND   OF   SOURCE.  227 

maerent,  friends  are  saddened  by  each  other's  pain ;  Institute 
su5  Caesar  copias  suas  ediixit,  Caesar  led  out  his  forces  in 
accordance  with  his  custom  ;  tanta  caritas  patriae  est,  ut  earn 
non  sensu  nostro  sed  salute  ipsms  metidmur,  so  great  is 
our  love  of  country  that  we  measure  it  not  by  our  feeling,  but  by 
her  own  welfare  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  37)  ;  milites  fessl  labSre, 
dux  anxius  curls,  the  soldiers  worn  out  with  hardship;  the  gen- 
eral troubled  with  his  cares. 

a.  Cause  is  also  sometimes  expressed  by  prepositions  ;  as  ;  — 
Legibus  propter  metum  paret,  he  obeys  the  laws  because 

of  fear  ;  ne  ob  earn  rem  ipsos  despiceret,  [they  begged]  him 
not  to  despise  them  on  that  account. 

b.  The  ablatives  causa  and  gratia  (sometimes  also  ergo)  are 
used  with  a  genitive  or  a  possessive  pronoun  to  denote  "  for  the 
sake  of ;  "  as  :  — 

Et  mea  et  rei  publicae  causa,  for  my  sake  and  that  of  the 
state. 

c.  Words  of  emotion,  etc.,  also  sometimes  take  the  ablative 
with  de,  ex,  a,  In  ;  as  :  — 

Laetarl  vict5ria  (or  in  victoria),  to  be  glad  at  one's  vic- 
tory; gloridrl  de  (or  in)  suis  dlvitiis,  to  boast  of  one's 
wealth  ;  laborare  ex  aere  alieno,  ab  re  frumentaria,  to 
suffer  under  debt,  from  want  of  provisions. 

ABLATIVE  OF  SOURCE. 

405.  The  ablative  is  used,  chiefly  with  perfect  parti- 
ciples, to  denote  BIRTH  or  ORIGIN.  Thus  :  — 

Tantald  prognatus,  descended  from  Tantalus  ;  eodem  patre 
natus,  born  of  the  same  father. 

a.  With  the  name  of  the  mother  and  with  pronouns  the  pre- 
position ex  is  generally  used,  except  in  the  poets  ;  with  distant 
ancestors  the  preposition  ab.  Thus  :  — 

Ex  regis  filia  natus,  born  of  the  king's  daughter ;  bestiae 
quoque  ex  se  natos  amant,  even  the  brutes  love  their  offspring ; 
Belgae  ortl  sunt  ab  Germanis,  the  Belgians  are  descended 
from  the  Germans. 


228  SYNTAX. 

b.  Loco,  genere,familia,  generally  take  no  preposition ;  as  :  — 
Summo  loco  natus,  born  in  the  highest  station. 

For  the  construction  with  places,  see  425,  426. 

c.  With  constare  and  like  words  the  ablative  is  used  alone  to 
denote   MATERIAL.     Thus:  — 

Animo  constamus  et  corpore,  we  consist  of  mind  and  body 
(cf.  Cic.,  Fin.,  iv.,  8,  19). 
NOTE.     Otherwise  a  preposition  is  used,  except  sometimes  in  verse. 

ABLATIVE  OF  AGENT  (Ablatwus  agentis). 

406.  The  ablative  of  persons  or  personified  things  is 
used  with  the  preposition  a,  a£>,  to  denote  the  AGENT. 
Thus :  — 

A  Clodio  diligor,  I  am  loved  by  Clodius ;  laiulatur  ab  his 
culpdtur  ab  illis,  by  the  one  set  he  is  praised,  by  the  other 
blamed  (Hor.). 

So,  perire  ab  hoste,  to  be  slain  by  the  enemy. 

For  Dative  of  Agent,  see  383. 

ABLATIVE  OF  MEANS  (Abtatwus  instrument!,). 

407.  The  ablative  of  things  is  used  without  a  preposi- 
tion to  denote  the  MEANS  or  INSTRUMENT  of  an  action. 
Thus :  — 

Cornibus  taurl,  aprl  dentibus,  morsu  leories,  aliae  bestiae 
fuga  se,  aliae  occultatione  tUtantur,  bulls  protect  themselves 
by  their  horns,  boars  by  their  tusks,  lions  by  biting,  some  beasts 
by  running  away,  others  by  hiding ;  Britanni  interiores  lacte 
et  carne  vlvebant  pellibusg'we  erant  vestiti,  the  Britons  of 
the  interior  used  to  live  on  milk  and  meat,  and  had  skins  for 
clothing. 

a.  A  person  regarded  as  a  means  is  denoted  by  per  with  the 
accusative ;  as  :  — 

Multl  per  Caesarem  aut  honores  aut  dlvitias  ceperunt, 
many  received  office  or  wealth  at  Caesar's  hands. 

b.  Various  verbs  which  in  English  are  used  transitively  are  in 
Latin  construed  with  an   ablative  of   means.     Thus  especially 


ABLATIVE   OF   AGENT,   OF   MEANS,  AND   OF   PRICE.     229 

words  meaning  "to  play"  (either  games  or  music),  and  some- 
times verbs  of  teaching  (see  also  394,  2,  b).  Thus  :  — 

Ludere  pild,  to  play  tennis  ;  *  canere  tlbils,  to  play  the  flute ; 
artibus  mstruere,  to  teach  the  arts ;  litteris  imbuere,  to  instil 
learning. 

c.  The  ablative  of  means  may  be  used  to  denote  the  road  or 
path  taken  (sometimes  called  ablative  of  the  way  by  which). 
Thus  :  — 

Omnibus  vils  riotls  semitlsque  essedarios  ex  silvis  emittebat, 
he  was  sending  out  warriors  in  chariots  from  the  woods  by  all 
the  known  roads  and  paths  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  v.,  19). 

ABLATIVE  OF  PRICE  (Ablatwus  pretii). 

408.  The  PRICE  f  or  VALUE  of  a  thing  is  expressed  by 
the  ablative,  chiefly  when  it  is  a  definite  quantity. 
Thus :  — 

Cum  te  trecentis  talentis  regi  Cotto  vendidisses,  when  you 
had  sold  yourself  to  king  Cottus  for  three  hundred  talents 
(Cic.)  ;  constitit  quadringentis  milibus,  it  cost  four  hun- 
dred thousand  [sesterces]  (Varr.)  ;  lev!  momento  aestimare, 
to  esteem  it  of  little  consequence  (Caes.). 

For  the  genitive  of  indefinite  price,  see  371,  372. 

a.  Magrio,  permagno,  parvo,  minima,  plurimo,  nihilo,  though 
denoting  indefinite  value,  are  used  as  ablatives  of  price. 

b.  Mutare  and  its  compounds  take  either  the  accusative  of  the 
thing  given  with  the  ablative  of  the  thing  received  in  exchange,  or 
vice  versa,  but  the  context  always  prevents  ambiguity.    Thus  :  — 

Chaoniam  glandem  pingul  mutavit  arista,  changed  the 
Chaonian  acorn  for  rich  grain  (Verg.)  ;  cur  valle  permutem 
Sabina  divitias  operosiores,  why  should  I  exchange  my  Sabine 
vale  for  more  burdensome  riches  ?  (Hor.,  Odes,  iii.,  1,  47). 
Sometimes  cum  is  used  with  the  ablative  ;  as  :  — 
Mortem  cum  vita  commutare,  to  exchange  life  for  death 
(Sulp.,  ad  Cic.). 

*  We  can  also  say,  of  course,  in  English,  "  to  play  at  tennis,"  "to  play 
on  the  flute,"  etc. 
t  That  is,  the  means  by  which  something  is  bought  or  sold. 


230  SYNTAX. 

ABLATIVE  OF  PLENTY  (Abldtwits  copiae). 

409.  The   ablative   (of    means)   is   used    with    verbs 
and  adjectives  which  denote  FULLNESS  or  ABUNDANCE. 
Thus:  — 

[  Villa]  abundat  porco.  haedo,  agno,  gallina.  lacte.  ca- 
sed, melle,  the  farmhouse  is  plentifully  provided  with  ham,  veni- 
son, lamb,  poultry,  milk,  cheese,  and  honey  (Cic.,  Sen.,  16,  56)  ; 
domus  plena  servis,  a  house  full  of  slaves  (luv.). 

a.  Sometimes,  by  a  Greek  idiom,  such  words  take  a  genitive 
in  the  poets  ;  compleo,  impleo,  and  plenus,  also  in  prose  ;  as  :  — 

Ollam  denariorum  implere,  to  fill  a  jar  with  pennies  (Cic.). 
(Cf.  359  and  360.) 

ABLATIVE  OF  MANNER  (Ablatlvus  modi). 

410.  (1.)  The  ablative  is  used  with  the  preposition 
cum  to  denote  MANNER  or  ACCOMPANIMENT.     Thus  :  — 

Cum  voluptate  aliquem  audlre,  to  listen  to  one  with 
pleasure  ;  Verres  Lampsacum  venit  cum  magna  calamitate 
cwitatis,  Verres  came  to  Lampsacus  with  great  disaster  to  the 
city  (Cic.). 

(2.)  The  preposition  is  often  omitted  when  there  is  an 
adjective  agreeing  with  the  ablative,  and  with  a  few  par- 
ticular words,  —  modo,  ratione,  more,  ritu,  silentio,  iure, 
iniuria,  etc.  Thus  :  — 

Nudls  pedibus  incedere,  to  go  barefoot ;  snmma  aequi- 
tate  res  constitute,  he  arranged  affairs  with  the  greatest  fair- 
ness ;  latronum  ritu  vivere,  to  live  after  the  fashion  of  brigands  ; 
silentio  praeterire  aliquid,  to  pass  by  something  in  silence. 

ABLATIVE  OF  CHARACTERISTIC  (Ablativus  qualitatis). 

411.  The  ablative  is  used,  with  an  adjective  agreeing 
with  it  or  a  genitive  depending  on  it,  to  denote  a  CHARAC- 
TERISTIC or  QUALITY.     Thus :  — 

Agesttaus  statura  fuit  humili  et  corpore  exiguo,  Agesi- 


ABLATIVE   CASE.  231 

laus  was  of  short  stature  and  small  frame  ;  homo  maxima 
barba,  a  man  with  very  long  beard  ;  fliimen  difficili  transitu 
rlpisque  praeruptis,  a  river  of  difficult  passage  and  steep 
banks ;  davits  ferreus  digitl  pollicis  crassitudine,  an  iron 
nail  of  the  thickness  of  the  thumb. 

a.  Physical  characteristics  are  always  expressed  thus  by  the 
ablative ;  other  qualities  may  also  be  expressed  by  a  genitive  of 
characteristic.  (See  356,  and  358,  6.) 

ABLATIVE  OF  SPECIFICATION  (Ablatwus  llmitdtionis). 

412.  The  ablative  is  used  with  nouns,  adjectives,  and 
verbs    to   denote   IN   WHAT    RESPECT   a   thing    is   true. 
Thus :  — 

Pietate  filius,  consiliis  parens,  in  affection  a  son,  in 
counsel  a  parent. 

lure  perltus,  skilled  in  law  ;  pedibus  aeger,  lame  in  his  feet. 

Contremisco  tota  mente  et  omnibus  artubus,  I  am  agi- 
tated in  my  whole  mind  and  all  my  limbs  (Cic.)  ;  mea  quidem 
sententia  *  pdci  semper  est  consulendum,  in  my  opinion  at 
least  the  interests  of  peace  are  always  to  be  looked  out  for. 

a.  Here  belongs  the  ablative  in  the  expressions  quid  hoc 
homine  facias,  what  can  you  do  with  such  a  man  ?  quid  ill5 
fiet  ?  what  will  be  done  with  him  ?  quid  te  futurum  est  ?  what 
is  going  to  become  of  you  ?  etc. 

For  the  rare  dative  with/aczo  in  this  sense,  see  381,  a. 

NOTE.  The  tendency  to  confuse  the  ablative  of  characteristic  and  the 
ablative  of  specification  can  be  avoided  by  remembering  that  with  the  first 
the  adjective  agTees  with  the  ablative,  and  with  the  second  it  agrees  with 
the  noun  qualified.  Thus :  — 

Hbwzcf  aegris  pedibus  (Characteristic). 
Homo  aeger  pedibus  (Specification). 

ABLATIVE  OF  SEPARATION  (Ablatwus  separationis). 

413.  SEPARATION  or  PRIVATION  is  denoted,  with  vari- 
ous verbs,  by  the  ablative.     With  persons  a  preposition 

*  This  case  is  sometimes  regarded  as  belonging  under  404,  3. 


232  SYNTAX. 


,  de,  ex)  is  always  used;  with  things  the  preposition  is 
sometimes  used,  sometimes  omitted.     Thus  :  — 

Qmntum  Varium  pellere  possessionibus  conoitus  est,  he 
tried  to  drive  Quintus  Varius  from  his  possessions  (Cic.)  ;  tune 
earn  philosophiam  sequere,  quae  spolwut  ?ios  iudici5,  privat 
adprobati5ne,  arbat  sensibus  ?  do  you  follow  a  philosophy 
which  robs  us  of  the  ability  to  pass  judgment,  deprives  us  of  the 
power  to  approve,  and  takes  away  the  use  of  the  senses?  (Cic.)  ; 
hoc  me  Hberd  metu,  free  me  from  this  fear  (Ter.)  ;  tu,  lup- 
piter,  hunc  a  tills  aris  arcebis,  thou,  Jupiter,  wilt  keep  this 
[scoundrel]  from  thy  altars  (Cic.)  ;  arcem  ab  incendio  libera- 
vit,  he  freed  the  citadel  from  fire  (Cic.)  ;  se  ab  Etruscls  se- 
cernere,  to  separate  one's  self  from  the  Etruscans  (Lav.). 
For  the  dative  with  words  of  taking  away  from,  see  380. 

ABLATIVE  OF  WANT  (Abldtwus  inopiae). 

414.  So  words  and  adjectives  denoting  NEED,  etc.,  take 
the  ablative.     Thus  :  — 

Virumqm  pecunia  egeat,  a  man  -who  needs  money  (Cic.)  ; 
carere  culpa,  to  be  free  from  fault  (Cic.)  ;  mea  adulescentui 
indiget  illorum  bona  existimatione,  my  youthf  ulness  needs 
their  good  opinion  (Cic.)  ;  inops  verbls,  poor  in  words  (Cic.)  ; 
orba  fratribus,  bereft  of  her  brothers  (Ovid). 

a.  Eged  and  indlged  often  take  the  genitive  ;  as  :  — 

Eged  consili,  I  need  advice  ;  rion  tarn  artis  indigent  quam 
Iab5ris,  they  do  not  lack  skill  so  much  as  they  lack  industry 
(Cic.) 

b.  Other  words  of  the  kind  are,  by  a  Greek  idiom,  often  used 
with  the  genitive  hi  the  poets  ;  as  :  — 

AbsttTietd  irarum,  thou  shalt  refrain  from  wrath  (Hor.)  ; 
cum  famulis  operum  solutis,  with  the  slaves  released  from 
their  tasks  (Hor.,  Odes,  iii.,  17). 

ABLATIVE  OF  DEGREE  OF  DIFFERENCE  (Ablatwus  mensurae). 

415.  DEGREE  OF  DIFFERENCE  is  expressed  by  the  ab- 
lative.    Thus  :  — 


ABLATIVE   CASE.  233 

Hibemia  dimidio  minor,  quam  Britannia,  Ireland  is  smaller 
by  half  than  Britain ;  quam  molestum  est  uno  digito  plus 
habere,  how  irksome  it  would  be  to  have  one  finger  more  [i.  e., 
than  we  have]  (Cic.)  ;  multd  ante  lucis  adventum,  long  before 
the  coining  of  the  day  (Sail.)  ;  quo  difficilius,  hoc  praecla- 
rius,  the  more  difficult,  the  more  glorious. 

a.  An  accusative  of  specification  is  sometimes  used  instead  of 
the  ablative  of  measure  ;  as  :  — 

Aliquantum  est  ad  rem  avidior,  he  is  somewhat  more  eager 
for  the  thing  (Ter.). 

NOTE.  The  ablatives  of  separation,  of  want,  and  of  degree  of  difference, 
are  varieties  of  the  ablative  of  specification. 

ABLATIVE  WITH  COMPARATIVES. 

416.  The  COMPARATIVE  degree,  when  quam  is  omitted, 
is  followed  by  the  ablative.  Thus  :  — 

Nihil  est  virtute  formosius,  nothing  is  more  beautiful  than 
virtue  (Cic.) ;  quis  C.  Laelio  comior,  who  more  courteous 
than  Gaius  Laelius  ?  (Cic.) 

a.  Quam  has  to  be  used  if  the  second  term  of  the  comparison 
is  not  nominative  (or  vocative)  or  accusative  ;  as  :  — 

Adventus  hostium  fuit  agris  quam  urbi  terribilior,  the 
arrival  of  the  enemy  was  more  dreadful  for  the  country  than 
for  the  city  (Llv.). 

Quam  is  also  frequently  used  when  the  second  term  of  the 
comparison  is  in  one  of  the  cases  named.  Thus  :  — 

Melior  tutiorque  est  certa  pax  quam  sperata  victoria, 
certain  peace  is  better  and  safer  than  victory  hoped  for  (Llv.). 

b.  The  words  opmione,  spe,  exspectatione,  fide,  dicto,  solito, 
aequo,  credibili,  necessario,  vero,  iusto,  are  used  after  compar- 
atives to  supply  the  place  of  a  clause.     Thus  :  — 

Opinione  celerius  venturus  esse  dlcitur,  he  is  said  to  be 
likely  to  come  sooner  than  one  expects  (Caes.)  ;  iniurias  gravius 
aequo  habere,  to  take  injuries  more  to  heart  than  is  right  and 
fair  (Sail.). 


234  SYNTAX. 

c.  Plus,  minus,  amplius,  and  longius,  with  or  without  quam, 
are  used  with  words  of  number  or  measure  without  affecting 
their  construction.     Thus  :  — 

Non  plus  quam  quattuor  mQia  effugerunt,  not  more  than 
four  thousand  escaped  (Liv.)  ;  minus  duo  milia  hominum  ex 
tanto  exercitu  effugerunt,  out  of  so  large  an  army,  less  than 
two  thousand  men  escaped  (Liv.)  ;  mUites  Romani  saepe  plus 
dimidiati  mensis  cibaria  ferebant,  the  Roman  soldiers  used 
often  to  carry  with  them  provisions  for  more  than  half  a  month 
(Cic.). 

d.  Alius  is  in  verse  sometimes  construed  with  the  ablative 
like  a  comparative  ;  as  :  — 

Neve  putes  alium  sapiente  Toonoque  beatum,  nor  think 
any  one  other  than  a  wise  and  good  man  happy  (Hor.). 

e.  Inferior  usually  takes  quam,  but  is  occasionally  followed 
by  a  dative  ;  as  :  — 

Vir  nulla  arte  cuiquam  inferior,  a  man  inferior  to  none  in 
any  kind  of  craft  (Sail.). 

NOTE.  The  foregoing  uses  of  the  ablative  will  sometimes  be  found  to 
shade  into  each  other  so  subtly  that  it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  assign  a 
given  instance  to  a  given  class.  This  is  due  to  the  necessity  of  making  a 
classification  for  foreigners  of  things  which  a  native  has  only  to  feel. 

ABLATIVE  IN  CERTAIN  SPECIAL  EXPRESSIONS. 

NOTE.  The  ablative  is  used  with  the  following  sets  of  words  "  idiomati- 
cally," —  that  is,  the  reason  for  the  ablative  is  not  immediately  evident, 
and  English  usage  leads  one  to  expect  a  different  case. 

Opus  and  ffsus. 

417.  Opus  and  usus,  meaning  NEED,*  take  the  abla- 
tive. Thus :  — 

Auctoritate  tua  riobls  opus  est,  we  need  your  influence 
(Cic.)  ;  mine  animis  opus,  mine  pectore  firmo.  now  there  is 
need  of  courage  and  a  steadfast  heart  (Verg.)  ;  naves,  quibus 
consull  usus  non  esset,  ships  for  which  the  consul  had  no  occa- 
sion (Liv.)  ;  maturatd  opus  est,  there  is  need  of  haste  (Liv.). 

*  The  ablative  here  is  an  ablative  of  specification,  showing  the  respect  in 
which  the  need  is  felt. 


ABLATIVE   IN   SPECIAL   EXPRESSIONS.  235 

a.  The  person  or  thing  who  has  the  need  is  expressed  by  the 
dative,  as  in  the  above  examples.  The  thing  needed,  besides 
being  expressed  by  the  ablative,  is  sometimes  expressed  by  the 
nominative  as  subject  (especially  if  a  neuter  pronoun),  or  rarely 
by  the  genitive  ;  as  :  — 

Quod  rion  opus  est,  asse  carum  est,  what  is  not  necessary  is 
dear  at  a  cent  (Cic.,  de  Sen.) ;  argentl  opus  fuit,  there  was 
need  of  silver  (Liv.). 

An  infinitive  clause  may  also  be  used  as  subject ;  as  :  — 

Quid  opus  est  tarn  valde  adf irmare,  what  need  of  such 
strong  assertion  ? 

DIguus,  Indlgnus,  Gontentus,  Fretus. 

418.  Dignus,   indignus,  contentus,  and  fretus  *  take 
the  ablative.     Thus :  — 

Dignus  laude,  worthy  of  praise  ;  vox  populi  maiestate  in- 
dlgna,  a  speech  unworthy  the  dignity  of  the  people  (Caes.)  ; 
bestiae  eo  contentae  non  quaerunt  amplius,  the  brutes,  con- 
tent with  that,  seek  nothing  further  (Cic.)  ;  plerlque  ingenio 
fretl,  most  of  them  trusting  to  their  ingenuity  (Cic.). 

a.  Dignus  and  indignus  sometimes  take  a  genitive,  and  fre- 
tus in  Livy  takes  a  dative  ;  as  :  — 

Suscipe  cogitdtionem  dignissimam  tuae  virtutis,  adopt 
a  plan  which  is  most  worthy  your  own  merits  ;  f or  tunae  fretus, 
trusting  to  fortune. 

For  dignus,  indignus,  with  the  subjunctive,  see  482,  2. 

Utor,  Fruor,  Fungor,  Potior,  Vescor. 

419.  Utor,fruor,fungor,potior,  and  vescor^  and  some 
of  their  compounds,  take  the  ablative.     Thus :  — 

Multl  deorum  beneficio  perverse  utuntur,  many  people 
use  the  blessings  of  the  gods  wrongly  (Cic.,  N.  D.,  iii.,  28,  70)  ; 
frul  voluptate,  to  enjoy  pleasure  (Cic.)  ;  fungitur  officio,  he 

*  The  ablative  with  dignus  and  indignus  is  also  an  ablative  of  specifi- 
cation ;  with  contentus  and  fretus  rather  an  ablative  of  cause. 

t  The  ablative  here  is  really  an  ablative  of  means.  Thus,  frul  volup- 
tate =  to  get  enjoyment  by  means  of  pleasure. 


236  SYNTAX. 

performs  the  duty  (Cic.)  ;  oppido  potltl  sunt,  they  got 
sion  of  the  town  (Lav.)  ;  vescitur  aura,  feeds  on  air  (Verg.)  ; 
legibus  abuti,  to  misuse  the  laws  (Cic.)  ;  defunct!  imperio 
regis,  having  fulfilled  the  king's  command  (Liv.,  i.,  4,  5). 

a.  In   early  Latin    these  verbs   occur  with   the   accusative. 
Thus :  — 

Uteris,  ut  voles,  operam  meam,  you  will  use  my  services  as 
you  please  (PL,  Poen.,  v.,  2,  128)  ;  munus  fungatur  suum,  let 
him  perform  his  duty  (PL,  Trin.,  354). 

NOTE.  In  classical  Latin  these  verbs  are  used  in  the  gerundive,  not  the 
gerund,  construction  (see  550).  Therefore,  ad  urbem  potiundam,  not 
ad  urbe  potiundum,  for  getting  possession  of  the  city ;  voluptatLs 
fruendae  causa,  not  voluptate  frueudi  causa,  for  the  sake  of  enjoying 
pleasure. 

b.  Potior  also  occurs  with  the  genitive ;  as  :  — 

Si  exploratum  tibi  sit  posse  te  illius  regni  potlri,  if  you 
are  satisfied  that  you  can  get  possession  of  that  kingdom  (Cic., 
Fam.,  i.,  7,  5). 

Nitor.  Innitor,  FIdo.  Confido. 

420.  Nitor,  inmtor,fldo,  and  confldo*  take  the  ab- 
lative.    Thus  :  — 

Baculd  nWi,  to  lean  on  a  staff ;  nifi  auctoritate,  to  depend 
on  (some  one's)  influence ;  hasta  innixus,  leaning  on  his  spear ; 
fidere  cursu,  to  trust  to  running ;  natura  loci  confldebant, 
they  had  confidence  in  their  natural  position. 

a.  Fido  and  confldo  also  sometimes  take  a  dative  (see 
376),  as  diffidd  always  does. 

Adsuesco.  Adsuefacio.  Consuesco.  Insuesco. 

421.  Adsuesco,  adsu'efacio,  consuescd,  insiiesco*  some- 
times take  the  ablative,  f     Thus :  — 

Aves  sanguine  et  praeda  adsuetae,  birds  accustomed  to  the 
blood  of  prey  (Hor.) ;  nullo  offici5  aut  disciplina  adsuefac- 
tus,  accustomed  to  no  [restraint  of]  duty  or  training  (Caes.)  ; 

*  The  ablative  with  the  two  sets  of  verbs  treated  in  420  and  421  is 
an  ablative  of  means.  Thus,  baculo  nltl  =  to  support  one's  self  by  means 
of  a  staff. 

T  In  Livy  and  the  later  writers  these  verbs  are  also  used  with  a  dative. 


ABLATIVE   ABSOLUTE.  237 

ne  gravissimS  dolore  timore  consuescerem,  in  order  not  to 
become  accustomed  to  most  bitter  pain  through  fear  (Plin.). 

a.  Acquiesco,  repose  in,  rejoice  in,  takes  most  commonly  in 
with  an  ablative,  but  (especially  in  the  historians  and  later 
writers)  also  a  simple  ablative  or  dative  ;  as  — 

Qui  iam  aetate  provectl,  in  nostris  librls  acquiescunt, 
those  who  are  now  advanced  in  years  find  rest  in  my  books 
(Cic.)  ;  qul  maxime  P.  Clodl  morte  acquierunt,  who  took 
the  greatest  satisfaction  in  the  death  of  Publius  Clodius  (Cic.)  ; 
cui  velut  oraculo  acquiescebat,  to  whom  he  yielded  assent 
as  to  an  oracle  (Suet.,  ViteL,  14). 

ABLATIVE  ABSOLUTE  (Ablatwus  absolutus). 

422.  A  noun  and  a  participle  are  put  in  the  ablative, 
not  grammatically  dependent  upon  the  rest  of  the  sen- 
tence, to  denote  the  TIME,  REASON,  or  CIRCUMSTANCES  of 
an  action.  Thus  :  - 

Pythagoras  Tarquinio  regnante  in  Italiam  venit,  Pytha- 
goras came  to  Italy  in  the  reign  of  Tarquin  (Cic.)  ;  hac  ora- 
ti5ne  habita,  concilium  dlmisit,  when  this  speech  had  been  de- 
livered, he  dismissed  the  assembly  (Caes.,  B.  6r.,  i.,  33)  ;  virtute 
excepta,  nihil  amicitia  praestabilius  putetis,  regard  nothing, 
with  the  exception  of  virtue,  as  of  more  value  than  friendship 
(Cic.). 

a.  Two  nouns  or  a  noun  with  an  adjective  may  also  be  put  in 
the  ablative  absolute,  with  the  participial  notion  of  "being" 
implied.     Thus  :  — 

Romam  venit  MariS  c5nsule,  he  came  to  Rome  while 
Marius  was  consul  (Cic.) ;  quid  adulescente  duce  efficere 
possent,  what  they  could  do  with  a  youth  as  leader  (Caes.)  ; 
Hannibale  vivo,  while  Hannibal  was  living  (Nep.). 

b.  A  clause  sometimes  supplies  the  place  of  the  noun  ;  as  :  — 
Nondum  compertS  quam  in  regionem  venisset  rex, 

not  yet  having  found  out  into  what  region  the  king  had  come 
(Liv.). 

•    *  It  will  be  remembered  that  esse  has  no  present  participle. 


238  SYNTAX. 

c.  A  pronoun  which  would  be  in  the  ablative  absolute  is  some- 
times omitted.*     Thus  :  — 

Additur  dolus<  missis  qul  magnam  vim  ligrwrum  ardentem 
in  flumen  conicerent,  a  crafty  scheme  was  also  employed  of 
sending  people  to  throw  a  lot  of  burning  wood  into  the  stream 
(Llv.,  i.,  37)  ;  causam  digressus  requirentibus,  when  they 
sought  the  cause  of  the  departure  (Tac.,  Hist.,  i.,  27). 

d.  The  ablative  absolute  is  chiefly  used  with  the  present  par- 
ticiple or  the  perfect  passive  participle,  and  when  the  word  in 
the  ablative  does  not  otherwise  occur  in  the  sentence,  but  it  also 
occasionally  occurs  in  the  following  cases :  — 

(1.)  Future  participle  :  — 

Inruptiiris  tarn  Infestis  nationibus,  when  such  hostile 
nations  were  on  the  point  of  bursting  in  (Liv.). 

(2).  Perfect  participle  of  a  deponent  verb  (rare  with  an  ob- 
ject, but  not  uncommon  otherwise)  :  — 

Sulla  omnia,  pollicit5,  Sulla  having  promised  everything 
(Sail.,  lug.,  103,  7)  ;  secutis  omnibus,  all  following  (Hor., 
S.,  ii.,  8,  40)  ;  virtutibus  ad  cruciatum  profectis,  the  vir- 
tues going  to  the  rack  (Cic.,  Ttisc.,  v.,  28,  80). 

(3.)  The  ablative  denoting  the  same  person  as  the  subject  or 
object  of  the  sentence  :  — 

Ostendit  se  ?nihi  infidelem  nunquam,  se  viva,  fore,  she 
shows  me  that  she  will  never  be  unfaithful  to  me,  as  long  as  she 
lives  (Plaut.,  True.,  ii.,  4,  85)  ;  Caesar,  obsidibus  impera- 
tis,  kos  Haeduis  custddiendos  tradit,  Caesar,  having  ordered 
hostages,  gives  them  over  to  the  Haeduans  to  guard  (Caes.,  B. 
G.,  vi.,  4)  ;  nerrw  erit  qul  credat  te  invito  ftwriaoitm  tibi 
esse  decretam,  there  will  be  no  one  who  will  believe  that  the 
province  was  assigned  you  against  your  own  will  (Cic.,  Phil., 
xi.,  10,  23). 

*  Expressions  like  tranquillo,  with  a  calm  sea,  sereno,  under  a  clear  sky, 
etc.,  may  be  considered  as  ablatives  absolute  with  the  noun  omitted  ;  or, 
perhaps  better,  as  ablatives  of  time,  like  ludls,  comitiis,  at  the  games,  elec- 
tions, etc.  (See  424s  6.) 


CONSTRUCTIONS   OF   PLACE   AND   TIME.  239 

(4.)  With  a  predicate  word  added  :  — 

Dolabella  hesterrio  die  hoste  decreto,  Dolabella  having 
been  yesterday  decreed  an  enemy  (Cic.,  Phil.,  xi.,  7,  16). 

For  the  Constructions  of  Place  and  Time,  see  423  ff. 
For  the  Cases  with  Prepositions,  see  428  ff. 

CONSTRUCTIONS  OF  PLACE  AND  TIME. 
DURATION  OF  TIME  AND  EXTENT  OF  SPACE. 

423.  DURATION  OF  TIME  and  EXTENT  OF  SPACE  are 
expressed  by  the  accusative.     Thus  :  — 

Appius  caecus  multos  annos  fuit,  Appius  was  blind  for 
many  years  (Cic.)  ;  dies  totos  de  virtute  disserunt,  they  dis- 
cuss (about)  virtue  whole  days  together  (Cic.)  ;  cum  abessem 
ab  Amdno  iter  uriius  diet,  when  I  was  one  day's  journey  from 
Mount  Amanus  (Cic.). 

(a.)  MEASURE  may  also  be  expressed  by  a  genitive  of  char- 
acteristic (cf.  356).  Thus :  — 

Duds  fossds  qulndecim  pedes  Idtds  perduxit,  he  drew  out 
two  ditches  fifteen  feet  wide  (Caes.)  ;  but  also,  valid  pedum 
duodecim,  with  a  rampart  of  twelve  feet  in  height  (Caes.,  B. 
£.,  ii.,  5). 

b.  Distance  may  also  be  expressed  by  an  ablative  of  measure 
(cf.  415).  Thus  :  — 

Tria  passuum  milia  ab  ipsd  urbe  castra  posuit,  he  pitched 
his  camp  three  miles  from  the  city  itself  (Liv.)  ;  but  also,  mill- 
bus  passuum  sex  a  Caesaris  castris  consedit,  he  encamped 
six  miles  from  Caesar's  camp  (Caes.). 

TIME  AT  WHICH. 

424.  TIME  AT  WHICH  or  WITHIN  WHICH  is  expressed 
by  the  ablative.     Thus :  — 

Hoc  tempore,  at  this  time  ;  tertia  vigilia  eruptionem  fe- 
cerunt,  they  made  a  sally  in  the  third  watch  (Caes.)  ;  ut  hieme 
naviges,  for  you  to  sail  in  winter  (Cic.) 


240  SYNTAX. 

a.  The  ablative  occasionally  also  denotes  duration  of  time ; 
as:  — 

Milites  quinque  horis  proelium  sustinuerunt,  the  soldiers 
maintained  the  battle  for  five  hours  (Caes.,  B.  C.,  i.,  47). 

b.  Many  words  are  used  as  ablatives  of  time  where  the  Eng- 
lish idiom  leads  us  to  expect  a  different  construction.    Thus  :  — 

Ludis,  at  the  games  ;  comitils,  at  the  elections ;  initio  or 
principle,  in  the  beginning ;  adventu,  on  the  arrival ;  dis- 
cessu,  on  the  departure ;  tumultu,  belld,  pace,  etc.,  (in  time 
of)  insurrection,  war,  peace,  etc. 

c.  The  day  of  the  month  is  commonly  expressed  by  the  for- 
mula ante  diem  .  .  .  Kalendas,  Nonas,  or  Idiis,  with  the  name 
of  the  month  as  an  adjective  agreeing  with  Kalendas,  Nonas, 
or  Id  us.     Thus  :  — 

Is  dies  erat  ante  diem  qulntum  Kalendas  Aprilis,  L. 
Pisone  A.  Gabmid  consulibus,  that  day  was  the  fifth  before 
the  first  of  April  (L  e.,  Mar.  28th*),  in  the  consulship  of  Lucius 
Piso  and  Aulus  Gabinius  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  6). 

d.  The  year  is  regularly  denoted  by  the  names  of  the  consuls 
in  the  ablative  absolute,  and  generally  without  a  connective,  as 
in  the  preceding  example. 

e.  Instead  of  ante  diem,  etc.,  sometimes  a  simple  ablative  of 
time  is  used,  the  name  of  the  month  remaining  in  the  accusa- 
tive ;  as  :  — 

Quint5  decimo  die  Kalendas  Sextills  (XV  Kal.  Sext.}, 
the  fifteenth  day  before  the  first  of  August  (i.  e.,  July  18th  *). 

/.  The  whole  expression  ante  diem  .  .  .  Kal.,  etc.,  may  be 
treated  as  a  noun  and  governed  by  a  preposition.  Thus  :  — 

Caedem  opti,natium  contulerat  in  ante  diem  qulntum 
Kalendas  Novembrls.  he  had  assigned  the  massacre  of  the 
nobles  to  the  28th  of  October  (cf.  Cic.,  Cat.,  i.,.3,  7). 

For  further  treatment  of  the  Roman  calendar,  see  661. 

*  It  mnst  be  remembered  that  the  Romans,  in  reckoning  from  one  day  to 
another,  included  both  days,  while  we  exclude  one  of  them.  Thus  the  28th 
of  March  was  to  the  Romans  the  fifth  day  before  the  1st  of  April,  while  to 
us  it  is  the  fourth  day. 


CONSTRUCTIONS  OF  PLACE  AND  TIME.  241 

PLACE  TO,  AT,  IN,  FROM  WHICH. 

425.  Relations  of  place  (except  with  names  of  towns) 
are   expressed  by   prepositions,  with   the   accusative   for 
PLACE  TO  WHICH,  and  the  ablative  for  PLACE  AT,  IN,  or 
FROM,  WHICH.     Thus  :  — 

Te  in  Epirum  venisse  gaudeo,  I  am  glad  you  have  reached 
Epirus  (Cic.)  ;  inde  ad  montem  altum,  perverierunt,  from 
there  they  came  to  a  high  mountain ;  cruentum  bellum  in  Afri- 
ca gerebatur,  a  bloody  war  was  going  on  in  Africa ;  in  foro 
ilium  invenies,  you  will  find  him  at  the  market-place ;  ex  Asia 
transibis  in  Europam,  from  Asia  you  will  go  across  to  Eu- 
rope ;  ab  flumine  statim  discedere  iussit,  he  ordered  them  to 
go  away  from  the  river  at  once. 

426.  With  names  of  towns  (and  small  islands)  — 
(1.)  No  preposition  is  used ;  as :  — 

Regulus  Karthaginem  rediit,  Regulus  went  back  to  Car- 
thage (Cic.) ;  Pausaniam  cum  classe  Cyprum  miserunt,  they 
sent  Pausanias  to  Cyprus  with  a  fleet  (Nep.)  ;  natus  Tibure 
vel  Gabiis,  born  at  Tibur  or  Gabii  (Hor.)  ;  Brundisid  pro- 
fectl  sumus,  we  started  from  Brundisium  (Cic.)  ;  Demaratus 
Tarquinios  Corintho  fugit,  Demaratus  fled  from  Corinth  to 
Tarquinii. 

(2.)  The  PLACE  IN  or  AT  WHICH  has  the  locative  form 
where  that  is  different  from  the  ablative.*  Thus :  — 

Romae  aliquot  menses  morabamur,  we  tarried  some  months 
at  Rome ;  Dionysius  tyrannies  Syracusis  expulsus  CorinthI 
pueros  docebat,  Dionysius  the  tyrant,  when  driven  from  Syra- 
cuse, kept  a  boys'  school  at  Corinth  (Cic.)  ;  Karthagim 
mortuus  est,  he  died  at  Carthage. 

But:- 

Athems  Plato  vivebat,  Plato  lived  at  Athens;  Sardibus 
haec  facto,  sunt,  this  took  place  at  Sardis  ;  etc. 

*  That  is,  in  the  singular  of  the  first  and  second  declensions,  and  some- 
times of  the  third.  (See  88,  a,  93,  97,  3,  112.) 


242  SYNTAX. 

a.  Like  names  of  towns  are  used  domus,  home,  and   rus, 
country,  with  the  locatives  belli,  tnllitiae,  in  the  field  or  at  war, 
humi,  on  the  ground,  and  the  expressions  foris,  out  of  doors, 
terra  marique,  on  land  and  sea.     A  locative  domul,  as  well  as 
domi,  occurs. 

b.  A  remnant  of  the  locative  case  is  seen  in  the  use  of  animi 
with  verbs  and  adjectives  of  emotion  ;  as,  excruciarl  animi, 
to  be  tortured  in  soul ;  aeger  aninii,  sick  at  heart ;  etc. 

c.  The  ablatives  loco  and  parte,  and  sometimes  others  of  gen- 
eral meaning,  are   used  without  a  preposition  to  denote    the 
PLACE  WHERE.     So  also  the  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted, 
when  the  ablative  is  qualified  by  an  adjective  (especially  totus). 
Thus  :  — 

Hoc  loco,  in  this  place ;  ed  parte,  on  that  side  ;  urbe  tota 
gemitus  fit,  a  groan  arises  in  the  whole  town  (Cic.)  ;  tota  Asia 
vagdtur,  he  wanders  in  all  Asia  (Cic.) ;  media  urbe,  in  the 
midst  of  the  city  (Lav.,  i.,  33). 

d.  With  libro,  capite,  versu,  etc.,  meaning  the  book,  chapter, 
verse,  etc.,  as  a  whole,  no  preposition  is  used  ;  but  if  a  particu- 
lar place  in  them  is  meant,  the  preposition  is  necessary. 

e.  The  preposition  is  sometimes  omitted  with  names  of  coun- 
tries   (especially  when    connected  with   names    of   towns),  but 
mostly  in   the  ante-classical  and  post-classical  writers.     Cicero 
and   Caesar   use   only  Aegyptum  thus.      The   poets   omit  the 
preposition  often  even  with  common  nouns.     Thus  :  — 

Romae  Numidiae^e  faeinora  eius  memorat,  he  mentions 
his  doings  at  Rome  and  in  Numidia  (Sail.,  lug.,  33,  4)  ;  lltte- 
rae  Macedonia  adlatae,  a  letter  brought  from  Macedonia 
(Liv.)  ;  Italiam  fato  profugus  Lavinia??/e  re  nit  litora, 
driven  by  fate  into  exile  he  came  to  Italy  and  the  shores  of 
Lavinium  (Verg.,  Ae.,  i.,  2)  ;  flnibus  otnnes  prosiluere  suis, 
they  ah1  leaped  forth  from  their  confines  (Verg.). 

/.  The  accusative  is  used  in  Latin  whenever  MOTIOX  TO  is 
implied,  even  where  the  English  idiom  leads  us  to  expect  the 
ablative.  Thus :  — 

Coniurdtl  in  curiam  convenerunt,  the  conspirators  met  in 


CONSTRUCTIONS   OF   PLACE   AND   TIME.  243 

the  senate  house ;  legates  Karthaginem  in  Africam  miserunt, 
they  sent  ambassadors  to  Carthage  in  Africa. 

g.  When  the  word  for  "  town "  is  put  in  apposition  with 
the  name  of  the  town,  and  has  no  adjective  with  it,  the  proper 
name  generally  stands  after  the  common  noun,  and  takes  its 
case.  Thus  :  — 

Vercingetorix  expellitur  ex  oppido  Gergovia,  Vercinge- 
torix  is  being  driven  out  of  the  town  of  Gergovia ;  Cinwn  in 
oppido  Citio  est  mortuus,  Cimon  died  in  the  town  of  Citium. 

h.  When  the  word  for  "  town  "  has  an  attributive  with  it, 
the  proper  name  stands  first,  and  if  in  the  locative  retains  its 
own  case.  A  preposition  meaning  "  at  "  or  "  in  "  is  here  often 
omitted  with  the  word  for  "  town  ; "  occasionally  also  one  mean- 
ing "  from."  Thus  :  — 

Tusculo,  ex  clarissimo  miinicipio,  from  Tusculum,  a  famous 
town ;  lugurtha,  Thalam  pervenit,  in  oppidum  magnum 
et  opulentum,  Jugurtha  arrives  at  Thala,  a  large  and  wealthy 
town ;  Cicero  Arplni  parvo  (in)  oppido  Latl  natus  est,  Ci- 
cero was  born  at  Arpinum,  a  small  town  of  Latium. 

427.  Prepositions  are  sometimes  used  with  expressions 
of  TIME  for  greater  accuracy,  and  with  names  of  towns  to 
denote  TO,  IN,  or  FROM,  THE  NEIGHBORHOOD  of  the  place. 
Thus :  — 

Quern  per  decem  ann5s  aluimus,  whom  we  have  been 
rearing  for  ten  years  (Cic.)  ;  de  tertia  vigilia  ad  hostes  con- 
tendit,  he  hastened  against  the  enemy  during  the  third  watch 
(Caes.)  ;  in  diebus  proximis  decem,  within  the  next  ten  days 
(Sail.) ;  iter  dlrigere  ad  Mutinam,  to  turn  one's  journey 
towards  Modena  (Cic.)  ;  ab  Alexandria  profectus,  starting 
from  Alexandria  (Cic.)  ;  ex  domo,  from  home. 

CASES  WITH  PREPOSITIONS. 

428.  The  cases  used  with  prepositions  are  the  accusa- 
tive and  the  ablative. 


244  SYNTAX. 

429.  The   ACCUSATIVE   is   used   with    the    following 
twenty-six  prepositions :  — 

ad,  to,  towards.  erga,  towards.  pone,  behind. 

adversus   (adver-  extra,  outside  of.  post,  after. 

sum),  against.  infra,  below.  praeter,  along  by. 

ante,  before.  inter,  among.  prope,  near. 

apud,  near.  intra,  within.  propter,  near,  on 

circum      (circa),  iuxta,  next.  account  of. 

around.  ob,  against,  on  ao       secundum,  after. 

circiter,  about.  count  of.  supra,  above. 

cis  (citra),  this  side  of.    penes,  in  the  power  of.    trans,  across. 
contra,  beyond.  per,  through.  ultra,  beyond. 

Thus  :— 

Ad  templum  rion  aequae  Palladis  ibant,  they  went  to  the 
temple  of  the  unpropitious  Minerva  (Verg.)  ;  adver "sus  hostes, 
against  the  foe  (Liv.)  ;  Germani  qui  cis  Rhenum  iucolunt, 
the  Germans  who  live  this  side  of  the  Rhine  (Caes.)  ;  cum  tan- 
turn  resideat  intra  muros  mall,  when  so  much  evil  remains 
within  the  city  (Cic.)  ;  prlncipw  rerum  imperium  penes  reges 
erat,  in  the  beginning  the  power  (over  things)  was  in  the  hands 
of  kings  (Just.)  ;  templum  ponam  propter  aquam,  I  will 
build  a  temple  near  the  water  (Verg.) ;  inter  agendum,  in  the 
midst  of  doing ;  ante  donandum,'  before  giving  (Verg.). 

a.  Cis   is  generally  used  with   names  of  places,  citra  with 
other  words  also ;  as  :  — 

Cis  Taurum,  this  side  Mt.  Taurus ;  citra  Veliam,  this  side 
Velia ;  citra  satietatem,  short  of  satiety. 

b.  Erga  is  very  rarely  used  in  classical  Latin  except  with 
names  of  persons. 

430.  The   ABLATIVE  is  used  with   the  following  ten 
prepositions  :  — 

a  or  ab,  from,  by.  cum,  with.  pro,  before. 

absque,  without.  de,  from,  about.  sine,  without. 

coram,*  in  presence  e  or  ex,  out  of.  tenus,  as  far  as. 

of.  prae,  before. 

*  Not  before  Cicero. 


CASES  WITH   PREPOSITIONS.  245 

Thus :  — 

Ab  illo  tempore,  from  that  time;  cum  exercitu,  with  an 
army ;  certis  de  causis,  for  particular  reasons  ;  ex  fuga,  from 
flight ;  sine  labor  e,  without  trouble. 

431.  In,  sub,  subter,  super,  take  the  accusative  when 
MOTION  is  implied  (even  figuratively)  ;  the  ablative  for 
relations  of  REST  :  — 

Via  ducit  in  urbem,  the  way  leads  into  town  (Verg.)  ; 
exercitus  sub  iugum  missus  est,  the  army  was  sent  under  the 
yoke  (Caes.)  ;  consul  subter  murum  hostium  ad  cohortes 
advehitur,  the  consul  rides  up  to  the  cohorts  close  under  the 
walls  of  the  enemy  (Liv.,  xxxiv.,  20,  8)  ;  super  Idbentem  cul- 
mina  tectl,  gliding  over  the  gable  of  the  roof  (Verg.). 

Media  in  urbe,  in  the  midst  of  the  city  (Ovid.)  ;  bella  sub 
Iliads  moenibus  gerere,  to  wage  war  at  the  foot  of  the 
walls  of  Troy  (Ovid.)  ;  super  tenero  prosternit  gramine 
corpus,  he  stretches  his  body  on  the  tender  sward  (Verg.). 

Noster  in  te  amor,  my  love  towards  you ;  hostilem  in 
modum,  after  a  hostile  fashion  ;  sub  ea  condicione,  on  this 
condition  ;  sub  adventu  Romanorum,  just  before  the  arrival 
of  the  Romans  ;  multa  super  Priamo  rogitans  super  Hec- 
tore  multa,  asking  many  questions  about  Priam  and  of  Hector 
many  (Verg.). 

a.  Subter  with  the  ablative  is  rare  and  chiefly  poetical. 

b.  Super  in   the  meaning  "  about,"  as  in  the  last  example, 
takes  the  ablative.     Otherwise  it  almost  always  takes  the  accu- 
sative. 

c.  Verbs  of  PLACING   (except  sometimes  impono)  take  the 
ablative,  not  accusative,  with  in,  notwithstanding  the  implied 
motion  ;  as  :  — 

Tres  legiones  in  ilia  urbe  posuit,  he  stationed  three  legions 
in  that  city. 

d.  Tenus  regularly  follows  its  noun.     Various  other  preposi- 
tions occasionally  do  so,  but  chiefly  in  the  poets.     Prepositions 
of  one  syllable  are  the  least  common  in  this  position.     Thus  :  — 

Capulo  tenus,  as  far  as  the  hilt  (Verg.,  Ae.,  x.,  536)  ;  vesti- 


246  SYNTAX. 

bulum  ante,  before  the  entrance  court  (Verg.,  Ae.,  vi.,  273)  ; 
te  propter^  on  your  account  (Verg.,  Ae.,  iv.,  320). 

e.  Cum  is  always  appended  to  the  personal  pronouns,  and 
generally  to  the  relative  and  interrogative  forms,  quo,  qua,  qui- 
bus,  qui.     Thus  :  — 

Est  mihi  tecum  amicitia  vetus,  I  have  a  long-standing 
friendship  with  you  ;  voblscum  simul,  along  with  you ;  frater 
quocum  Antiochum  vicerat,  the  brother  with  whom  he  had 
conquered  Antiochus. 

f.  Tenus  occasionally  takes  the  genitive,  thus  retaining  its 
original  force  as  a  noun  ;  as  :  — 

Corcyrae  tenus,  as  far  as  Corcyra. 

g.  Certain  adverbs  sometimes  take  the  accusative  or  ablative 
like  prepositions.     So,  with  the  accusative,  prldie,  postrldie,* 
propius,  proxime  (cf.  39O,  4),  usque  ;  with  the  ablative,  pa- 
lam,  procul,  simul;  with  either  case  (or  occasionally  with  a 
genitive  or  dative),  clam.     Thus :  proxume  Karthaginem,  close 
to  Carthage  (Sail.,  Jug.,  18,  11)  ;  palam  populo,  before  the  peo- 
ple (Liv.,  vi.,  14,  5)  ;  clam  uxorem,  unknown  to  his  wife  (Plaut., 
Merc.,  545)  ;  clam  patris,  unknown  to  his  father  (Plaut.,  Merc., 
43). 

NOTE.  All  the  prepositions  denoted  originally  relations  of  PLACE, 
taking  the  accusative  where  motion  TO  or  TOWARDS  a  place  was  implied, 
otherwise  the  ablative.  This  distinction  is  also  easily  traceable  in  most 
of  the  figurative  uses  of  the  prepositions  as  they  grew  out  of  the  relations 
of  place. 

PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  USE  OF  NOUNS. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  Latin  nouns  deserve 
especial  notice :  — 

432.  Concrete  nouns  are  used  to  denote  the  time  of 
life  at  which  a  person  does  something,  where  in  English 
an  abstract  noun  or  a  clause  is  used.  Thus :  — 

Adulescens  Cato  in  Hispanw  mllitaverat,  Cato  had  served 
in  Spain  when  a  young  man  (or  in  his  youth). 

So,  a  puero,  etc.,  from  boyhood,  etc. 

*  These  two  words  also  take  a  genitive  (see  355,  5,  6). 


PECULIARITIES   IN   THE   USE   OF   NOUNS.  247 

433.  So  also  in  designations  of  office.     Thus  :  — 
Catilmae  coniurdtionem   Cicero   consul  oppressit,  Cicero, 

when  consiil,  overthrew  the  conspiracy  of  Catiline. 
a.  In  consuldtu  suo  can,  however,  also  be  used. 

434.  Abstract   nouns  are  often  used  in  a  collective 
sense ;  as,  legatio,  an  embassy ;  riobilitas,  the  aristocracy ; 
iuventus,  the   youth ;    levis   armatura,  the   light   armed 
troops. 

435.  The  singular  of  nouns  denoting  persons  is  also 
used  collectively  instead  of  the  plural,  especially  in  military 
expressions  ;  as,  miles,  the  soldiery ;  hostis,  the  enemy ; 
Poenus,  the  Carthaginian (s).      (Cf.  also  346,  1,  a.) 

436.  The  singular  is  thus  used  for  the  plural  in  names 
of  animals  (to  denote  food),  and  of  plants,  and  sometimes 
other  words.     Thus  :  — 

Villa  abundat  porco,  haedo,  etc.,  the  farmhouse  has  plenty 
of  pork,  goat's  meat,  etc.*  ;  caput  redimire  rosa,  to  bind  the 
head  with  roses  ;  faba  vesci,  to  feed  on  beans  ;  bestiae  pluma 
obductae,  animals  covered  with  feathers. 

437.  The  plural  is  used  where  in  English  the  singular 
is  preferred  :  — 

(1.)  To  indicate  a  thing  as  belonging  to  SEVERAL  PER- 
SONS Or  to  PEOPLE  IN  GENERAL.  Thus  : 

Hostes  terga  vertunt,  the  enemy  turn  their  back;  animi 
hominum  immortdles  sunt,  the  soul  of  man  is  immortal. 

(2.)  In  names  of  materials,  etc.,  to  denote  KINDS  or 
PIECES  of  the  thing  mentioned ;  as,  vlna,  kinds  of  wine  ; 
carnes,  pieces  of  flesh ;  ligna,  bits  of  wood. 

(3.)  In  abstract  nouns,  to  denote  INSTANCES  of  the 
quality.  Thus  :  — 

Clarae  mortes  pro  patrid  oppetltae  bedtae  viderl  solent, 
an  illustrious  death  met  for  one's  country  is  regarded  as  a  hap- 
piness ;  in  odia  hominum  incurrere,  to  run  into  men's  dislike. 
*  The  same  example  will  be  found  more  fully  quoted  on  p.  230. 


248  SYNTAX. 

a.  The  plural  is  not  infrequently  used  for  the  singular  in 
poetry,  as  having  a  more  elevated  and  impressive  effect. 

NOTE.  Except  in  the  uses  mentioned,  abstract  noons  are  much  less  com- 
mon in  Latin  than  in  English,  verb  constructions,  or  nouns  of  general 
meaning,  like  res,  with  an  adjective,  being  used  instead.  The  pupil  should 
be  particularly  warned  against  using  the  longer  abstracts  in  -tas,  -tia, 
-tio,  etc.,  freely  as  equivalents  of  the  English  words  derived  from  them. 

PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  USE  OF  ADJECTIVES. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  adjectives  deserve  especial 
notice :  — 

438.  Adjectives  are  often  used  as  nouns  :  — 

(1.)  Especially,  adjectives  denoting  RELATIONSHIP,  or 
CONNECTION  WITH,  are  often  more  common  as  nouns  than 
as  real  adjectives ;  as :  — 

Cognatus  (-a),  a  relative  ;  adflnis,  a  connection  ;  amicus 
(-a),  a  friend  ;  aequalis,  a  contemporary ;  vlcmus  (-a),  a  neigh- 
bor. 

a.  So  the  gentile  adjectives  ;  as  :  — 

Homanus,  a  Roman  ;  Atkeniensis,  an  Athenian. 

(2.)  In  the  masculine  plural,  as  in  English,  to  denote 
CLASSES  of  people  ;  as :  — 

Bonij  the  good ;  divites,  the  rich ;  docfi,  the  learned. 

a.  In  the  singular,  to  denote  a  class,  the  nominative  is  rare  ; 
but  the  other  cases  are  not  uncommon,  especially  the  genitive 
with  esse  ;  as  :  — 

Dementis  hoc  est,  this  is  the  part  of  a  madman. 

(3.)  In  the  neuter,  to  denote  THINGS  ;  as  :  — 

Bonum,  a  good  thing  ;  malum,  an  evil. 

And  especially  perfect  participles  ;  as  :  — 

Factum,  a  deed  ;  responsum,  an  answer. 

a.  The  participle  thus  made  a  noun  may  still  he  modified  by 
an  adverb  ;  as,  praecldre  factum  as  well  as  praeclarum  factum. 
In  such  cases,  bene,  male,  and  recte  are  always  used  rather 
than  the  corresponding  adjectives. 


PECULIARITIES   IN  THE   USE   OF   ADJECTIVES.       249 

439.  Neuter  adjectives  are  also  used  substantively  :  — 
(1.)  In  the  singular,  in  philosophical  language,  to  ex- 
press abstract  ideas ;  as :  — 

Rectum,  the  right ;  turpe,  the  base  ;  summum  bonum,  the 
highest  good. 

(2.)  As  partitive  genitives  ;  as :  — 

Aliquid  novi,  something  new. 

(3.)  In  phrases  with  prepositions ;  as  :  — 

In  medid  relinquere,  to  leave  undecided  ;  in  medium  pro- 
ferre,  to  bring  before  people ;  in  tiito  esse,  to  be  in  safety ; 
sine  dub  id,  without  doubt. 

(4.)  In  the  plural  where  in  English  often  an  abstract 
singular  is  used  ;  as  :  — 

lusta  dicer  e,  to  say  what  is  just ;  pestifera  a  salutaribus 
discernere,  to  distinguish  the  baneful  from  the  salutary. 

a.  Only  the  nominative  and  accusative  are  common  in  this 
use.  Confusion  with  the  similar  masculine  forms  would  often 
arise  in  the  other  cases,  and  then  res  is  used  with  the  adjective 
(bonarum  rerum  =  bonorum,  n.,  etc.).  But  where  there  is  no 
danger  of  ambiguity  such  neuters  occur  ;  as  :  — 

Pmmum  omnium,  first  of  all  things. 

440.  Adjectives  are  often  used  in  Latin  where  English 
prefers  a  possessive  case  or  a  noun  with  a  preposition, 
especially  adjectives  formed  from  names  of  nations  or  in- 
dividuals.    Thus :  — 

Milites  Pompeiam,  the  soldiers  of  Pompey ;  oratio  Cice- 
roniana,  an  oration  of  Cicero's ;  bellum  lugurthmum,  the 
war  against  Jugurtha ;  pugna  Cannensis,  the  battle  of  Can- 
nae ;  Dion  Syraeusanus,  Dion  of  Syracuse. 

441.  Attributive   adjectives   are    very  rarely  used   in 
direct  agreement  with  proper  names  or  with  words  like 
consul,  which  characterize  an  individual.     The  adjective 
is  commonly  made  to  agree  with  an  appellative  noun  put 
in  apposition  with  the  proper  name.     Thus :  "  the  wise 


250  SYNTAX. 

Scipio  "  is  Scipio,  vir  sapientissimus  ;  "  wealthy  Capua  " 
is  Capua,  urbs  opulentissima. 

a.  Adjectives  of  quantity  or  number,  however,  are  common  as 
attributives.  Thus:  tota  Hispania,  entire  Spain;  Romanl 
duo,  two  Romans.  So  also  in  expressions  like  Pompeius 
magnus,  Pompey  the  Great ;  Karthago  nova,  new  Carthage ; 
Scipio  maior,  Scipio  the  elder. 

442.  The  superlatives  summus,  imus,  ultimus,  extre- 
mus,  primus,   with  the   word  medius,  are  used,  directly 
agreeing  with  a  noun,  to  denote  the  TOP  or  BOTTOM,  HIGH- 
EST, FIRST,  MIDDLE  part  of ,  etc.     Thus :  — 

Summus  nions,  the  top  of  the  mountain ;  in  extrenia  ord- 
tione,  at  the  end  of  his  speech  ;  media  ab  urbe,  from  the  mid- 
dle of  the  city ;  prima  aestate,  at  the  beginning  of  summer. 

So,  novissimo  agmine,  on  the  rear  of  the  line  of  march. 

For  special  uses  of  Comparatives  and  Superlatives,  see  164. 

PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  USE  OF  PRONOUNS. 

Personal  and  Possessive  Pronouns. 

443.  In  the  FIRST  PERSON  the  plural  of  the  personal 
and  possessive  pronouns  is  often  used,  out  of  politeness, 
for  the  singular  (pluralis  modestiae).     Thus :  — 

Hunc  librum  ad  te  de  senectute  misimus,  this  book  I  have 
written  on  old  age  and  dedicated  to  you  (Cic.,  Sen.,  i.,  3)  ; 
Catonis  sermo  explicabit  nostram  omnem  de  senectute  senten- 
tiam,  Cato's  words  will  explain  all  my  opinion  about  old  age 
(Cic.,  ibidem). 

a.  The  plural  of  the  SECOND  PERSON  is  never  used  as  in  Eng- 
lish for  the  singular.  When  it  seems  to  be  so  used,  it  will  always 
be  found  that  more  persons  than  the  individual  addressed  are 
referred  to ;  as,  for  instance,  his  family  or  comrades. 

444.  The  possessive  pronouns,  like  the  personals  (cf. 
316,  a),  are  expressed  only  when  emphatic  (as  marking 
a  contrast)  or  to  avoid  ambiguity.     In  the  first  case  they 
precede,  in  the  second  they  follow,  their  noun.     Thus  :  — 


PECULIARITIES  IN  THE  USE  OF  PRONOUNS.         251 

Delude  ego  ilium  de  su5  regno,  ille  me  de  nostra  re  pu- 
blica  percontdtus  est,  then  I  questioned  him  about  his  kingdom 
and  he  me  about  our  state  (Cic.,  Re  Pub.,  vi.,  9)  ;  vestra 
vero  quae  dlcitur  vita  mors  est,  but  your  so  called  life  is 
really  death  (Cic.,  Re  Pub.,  vi.,  14). 

Quocircd  si  sapientiam  meam  admirdrl  soletis  —  quae 
utinam  dlgna  esset  opinione  vestra  uostroque  cogno- 
mine! — -in  hoc  sumus  sapientes,  quod,  etc.,  therefore  if  you 
are  wont  to  look  with  admiration  upon  my  wisdom  —  oh  that  it 
were  worthy  of  your  good  opinion  and  my  surname  (i.  e.,  Sapi- 
ens) !  —  it  is  in  this  that  I  am  wise,  that,  etc.  (Cic.,  Sen.,  2,  5). 

Beflexive  and  Intensive  Pronouns. 

445.  (1.)  The  reflexive  pronouns,  se  and  suus,  are 
used  primarily  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  sentence  or 
clause  in  which  they  stand.  Thus  :  — 

Oppidan!  f acinus  in  se  dc  suos  foedum  et  ferum  conscis- 
cunt,  the  townspeople  resolve  upon  a  barbarous  and  revolting 
deed  against  themselves  and  theirs  (Liv.,  xxviii.,  22,  5). 

Ipse  se  quisque  dlligit,  non  ut  aliquam  a  se  ipse  mercedem 
exigat  caritdtis  suae,  sed  quod  per  se  sibl  quisque  cdrus  est, 
every  one  loves  himself,  not  in  the  expectation  of  getting  from 
himself  any  reward  whatever  for  his  fondness,  but  because 
every  one  is  fond  of  himself  for  his  own  sake  (Cic.,  Am.,  21, 
80). 

Ariovistus  respond^  non  oportere  sese  d  populo  Romano 
in  su5  iure  impedim,  Ariovistus  answered  that  he  ought  not  to 
be  interfered  with  by  the  Roman  people  in  the  exercise  of  his 
own  rights  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  36). 

Caesar,  milites  cohortdtus  ut  suae  prlstinae  virtutis  memo- 
riam  retinerent,  Caesar,  having  exhorted  the  soldiers  to  hold  fast 
to  the  remembrance  of  their  own  old  time  valor  (Caes.,  B.  G., 
ii.,  21). 

a.  Thus  in  the  Indirect  Discourse  se  regularly  refers  to  the 
speaker,  while  the  person  addressed  is  referred  to  by  ilium  or 
eum. 


252  SYNTAX. 

(2.)  In  dependent  clauses  which  are  so  thoroughly 
subordinated  that  the  subject  of  the  main  clause  is  left 
more  prominently  in  the  mind  than  the  subject  of  the 
subordinate  clause,  se  and  suus  refer  to  the  subject  of 
the  main  clause,  unless  ambiguity  might  be  caused  there- 
by. Thus :  — 

Orator  sagaciter  pervestlget  quid  sui  ewes  cogitent,  opinen- 
tur,  exspectent,  our  orator  will  cleverly  search  out  the  thoughts, 
opinions,  and  expectations  of  his  own  countrymen  (cf.  Cic.,  de 
Or.,  i.,  51,  223). 

Af ricanus,  si  sua  res  ageretur,  testimonium  rion  diceret, 
Africanus  would  not  be  giving  evidence,  if  it  were  his  case  that 
was  before  the  court  (Cic.,  Rose.  Am.,  36,  103). 

Camillus  mihi  scripsit  te  secum  locutum  esse,  Camillus 
wrote  ine  that  you  had  talked  with  him  (Cic.,  Att.^  xi.,  23,  l). 

a.  This  reference  of  se  or  suus  chiefly  occurs  where  from  the 
nature  of  the  situation  a  reflexive  referring  to  the  subject  of 
the  subordinate  clause  would  be  unnatural  or  impossible,  as  in 
the  examples,  and  where  if  the  dependent  sentence  were  inde- 
pendent it  would  not  contain  a  reflexive.     Thus  the  first  and 
third  examples  above  would  become :  — 

Quid  cogitant  (etc.)  elves  eius  (i.  e.,  oratoris)  ;  tu  cum 
eo  (i.  e.,  Camilla)  locutus  es. 

b.  If  any  ambiguity  might  arise,  ipse  is  used  in  the  subordi- 
nate clause  to  refer  to  the  subject  of  the  main  clause.  Thus :  — 

lugurtha  legates  mxsit  qui  ipsi  liberisque  vitam  peterent, 
Jugurtba  sent  ambassadors  to  beg  for  his  life  and  his  children's 
(cf.  Sail.,  lug.,  46,  2). 

446.  Se  and  suus  may  further  be  used,  when  it  can 
be  done  without  ambiguity,  to  refer  to  words  other  than 
the  subject,  especially  :  — 

(1.)  To  the  person  thought  of  as  acting,  though  not 
grammatically  the  subject.  Thus  :  — 

A  Caesare  invitor  ut  sim  sibl  legatus,  I  am  invited  by 
Caesar  to  be  his  lieutenant ;  vos  ex  M.  Pav5ni5  audistis 


REFLEXIVE   AND   INTENSIVE   PRONOUNS.  253 

Clodium  sibl  dlxisse  periturum  Milonem,  you  have  heard 
Marcus  Favonius  say  that  Clodius  had  told  him  that  Milo 
should  die  (Cic.,  Mil.,  16,  44)  ;  contentum  suls  rebus  esse 
sunt  mdximae  dlvitiae,  to  be  content  with  one's  lot  is  great 
riches. 

(2.)  In  various  cases  where  the  English  puts  in  "  own  " 
or  "  very."  Thus  :  — 

Romdriis  multitude  sua  auxit  animum,  their  very  numbers 
increased  the  courage  of  the  Romans ;  valetudinem  ipsam  per 
se  expetimus,  we  aim  at  good  health  for  its  own  sake. 

a.  Thus  sometimes  two  or  more  instances  of  se  occur  in  the 
same  sentence  referring  to  different  persons.  Thus  :  — 

Scythae petebant  ut  regis  sulflliam  mdtrimdnio  sibiiunge- 
ret,  the  Scythians  asked  him  [i.  e.,  Alexander]  to  unite  the 
daughter  of  their  king  to  himself  in  marriage  (Curt.)  ;  quod 
sibl  Caesar  denuntidret  se  Haeduorum  iniurids  rion  neglec- 
turum,  neminem  secum  sine  sua  pernicie  contendisse,  as  to 
Caesar's  announcement  to  him  [Ariovistus]  that  he  [Caesar] 
would  not  disregard  the  wrongs  done  to  the  Haeduans,  nobody 
had  fought  with  him  [Ariovistus]  without  coming  to  grief  him- 
self [i.  e.,  nemo~]  (Caes.,  B.  6r.,  i.  36). 

447.  The  place  of  the  third  personal  pronoun  when  not 
reflexive  is  supplied  by  is,  ea,  id,  or,  if  a  stronger  form  is 
wanted,  by  ille  or  Me.  Thus  :  — 

Quod  fere  cottldidnis  proeliis  cum  Germdnls  contendunt  cum 
aut  suls  flnibus  eos  prohibent,  aut  ipsl  in  eorum  finibus 
bellum  gerunt,  because  they  struggle  in  almost  daily  battles 
with  the  Germans,  when  either  they  try  to  keep  them  out  of 
their  country  or  themselves  make  war  in  the  Germans'  country 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  1)  ;  Ariovistus  respondit,  si  quid  ipsl  d 
Caesar  e  opus  esset,  sese  ad  eum  venturum  fuisse  ;  si  quid  ille 
se  velit,  ilium  ad  se  venire  oportere,  Ariovistus  answered  that 
if  he  had  wanted  any  thing  of  Caesar  he  should  have  gone  to 
him  ;  if  Caesar  wanted  any  thing  of  him  he  ought  to  come  to 
him  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  34). 

a.  Sometimes  the  demonstrative  is  used  where  the  reflexive 


254  SYNTAX. 

would  seem  more  natural.  Here  the  writer  changes  for  the 
moment  from  the  point  of  view  of  the  subject  to  his  own  point 
of  view.  Thus  :  — 

Helvetil  persuadent  Rauracls  ut  lina  cum  iis  proficiscantur, 
the  Helvetians  persuaded  the  Rauraci  to  go  forth  with  them 
(Caes.)  ;  ita  se  gessit  [Ligarius~\  ut  el  pacem  esse  expediret, 
Ligarius  so  conducted  himself  that  it  was  for  his  advantage  to 
have  peace  (Cic.)  ;  [Delphds~\  postquam  ventum  est,  cupido 
ineessit  animos  iuvenum  sciscitandi  ad  quern  eorum  regnum 
Homanum  esset  venturum,  after  they  had  come  to  Delphi  a 
desire  entered  the  minds  of  the  young  men  to  find  out  to  which 
of  them  the  Roman  kingdom  was  to  come  (Lav.,  i.,  56,  10). 

448.  The  intensive  ipse,  is  used :  — 

(1.)  To  express  the  emphasis  which  is  given  in  English 
by  "himself,"  "herself,"  "itself,"  or  "very,"  or  by  some 
circumlocution  like  that  in  the  last  example  below. 
Thus :  — 

Ipsa  spes  inopiam  sustentabat,  their  hope  itself  (or  their 
very  hope)  made  their  want  endurable  ;  a  multis  ipsa  virtus 
contemnitur,  virtue  herself  is  despised  by  many;  praecipitur 
ut  noblsmet  ipsis  imperemus,  it  is  taught  that  we  should  exer- 
cise control  over  ourselves  ;  medici  ipsi  se  curare  rion  possunt, 
physicians  cannot  cure  themselves ;  Lucretia  se  ipsa  interemit, 
Lucretia  killed  herself  with  her  own  hand. 
Cf .  also  the  first  example  under  447. 

a.  The  Romans  had  a  fancy  for  making  ipse  agree  with  the 
subject,  as  in  the  last  two  examples,  where  we  put  "  self  "  with 
the  object. 

(2.)  To  refer  (in  the  same  way  that  se  refers  to  the 
subject  of  its  own  sentence),  to  a  person  or  thing  in  an- 
other sentence  connected  with  its  own  ;  as :  — 

Ariovistus  respondit,  si  quid  ipsi  a  Caesare  opus  esset,  etc. 
See  this  example  under  447  on  preceding  page,  and  also  cf .  445,  2,  6. 

449.  The  reciprocal  meaning   of   the   English  "  each 
other,"   "  one   another,"   is   expressed   in   Latin   as  fol- 
lows :  — 


REFLEXIVE   AND   INTENSIVE   PRONOUNS.  255 

(1.)  By  inter  nos,  inter  vos,  and,  for  the  third  person, 
when  the  reference  is  to  a  nominative  or  an  accusative, 
by  inter  se  ;  otherwise  by  inter  ipsos.  Thus  :  — 

Inter  n5s  natura  coniunctl  sumus,  we  are  bound  to  each 
other  by  natural  ties ;  fratres  inter  se  cum  forma  turn  moribus 
similes,  brothers  resembling  each  other  in  both  person  and  char- 
acter (Cic.)  ;  /eras  inter  sese  conciliat  natura,  nature  makes 
wild  beasts  agree  with  one  another  (Cic.) ;  incidunt  aliqua  a 
doctls  etiam  inter  ipsos  mutud  reprehensa,  some  things  come 
in  which  learned  people  reciprocally  blame  in  each  other 
(Quint.). 

a.  With  inter  se  a  reflexive  accusative  or  dative  is  omitted ; 
as :  — 

Puerl  amant  (sc.  se)  inter  se,  the  boys  love  each  other; 
ewes  inter  se  (sc.  sibl)  gratulabantur,  the  citizens  congratu- 
lated each  other. 

(2.)  Or  alter )  repeated  in  a  different  case,  may  be  used 
when  only  two  persons  or  things  are  meant ;  alius,  if 
more  than  two  are  meant.  The  plural  of  alter  is  used  of 
two  parties.  Thus :  — 

Milites  alius  alium  hortatur,  the  soldiers  encourage  one 
another ;  noxil  ambo  alter  in  alterum  causam  conferunt,  both 
being  guilty  they  each  throw  the  blame  upon  the  other ;  alter! 
alteros  vincere  quovis  modo  volunt,  each  side  wishes  to  beat  the 
other  by  any  possible  means. 

Cf.  also,  homines  inter  se  alii  aliis  prodesse  volunt,  men 
wish  to  benefit  each  other  reciprocally. 

(3.)  Or  a  noun  or  pronoun  may  be  repeated  in  a  differ- 
ent case.  Thus :  — 

Tantae  fuerunt  tenebrae  ut  per  blduum  nemo  hominem 
homo  agriosceret,  the  darkness  was  so  great  that  for  two  days 
men  could  not  recognize  each  other  at  aU  (Cic.,  JV.  Z>.,  ii.,  38, 
96)  ;  Atticus  moriens  non  ex  vita,  sed  ex  dom5  in  domum 
migrare  videbatur,  Atticus  in  dying  seemed  not  to  be  moving 
out  of  life  but  out  of  one  home  into  another  (cf.  Nep.,  xxv.,  22)  ; 


256  SYNTAX. 

neque  diiudicari  posset  uter  utri  virtute  anteferendus  vide- 
retur,  nor  could  it  be  decided  which  of  the  two  seemed  more 
admirable  in  valor  than  the  other  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  v.,  44). 

Demonstrative  Pronouns. 

In  addition  to  what  was  said  of  the  demonstratives  in 
181,  the  following  points  deserve  notice :  — 

450.  (1.)  If  ic  (especially  the  neuter  hoc)  is  used  to 
refer  to  something  immediately  to  be  introduced ;  but  if 
the  thing  is  to  be  marked  emphatically  as  opposed  to  other 
things  said,  ille  (especially  illud)  is  used.  Thus  :  — 

Inter  omnes  hoc  constat,  virorum  esse  fortium  toleranter 
dolor  em  pati,  all  men  are  agreed  upon  this  point,  that  to  suffer 
pain  with  patient  endurance  is  characteristic  of  brave  men  ;  hoc 
modo  locutus  est,  he  spoke  as  follows. 

But :  cum  multa  alia  mirabilia  sunt  turn  illud  imprimis, 
not  only  are  there  many  other  admirable  things,  but  this  is  es- 
pecially admirable ;  illud  vero  idem  Caecilius  vitwsius,  but 
the  following  remark  of  the  same  Caecilius  is  more  reprehen- 
sible (Cic.,  Sen,,  8,  25). 

(2.)  Ille  often  refers  to  that  which  is  well  known,  fa- 
mous, or  of  general  notoriety.  Thus :  — 

Medea  ilia,  the  Medea  of  story ;  magno  illi  Alexandra  si- 
millimus,  closely  resembling  the  (well  known)  great  Alexander. 

(3.)  Is  is  used  as  the  antecedent  of  a  relative  which 
describes  a  class  of  persons  or  things  =  "  he  who,"  "  the 
one  who,"  "  such  as."  Thus :  — 

Eum  qui  palam  est  adversarius  facile  cavendo  vitare  pos- 
sls,  one  who  is  openly  an  enemy  you  can  easily  escape  by 
guarding  against  him ;  neque  enim  tu  is  es  qui  quid  sis  nes- 
cias,  for  you  are  not  such  a  person  as  not  to  know  what  you 
are  (Cic.). 

a.  Is  is  sometimes  used  to  resume  mention  of  a  preceding 
subject  where  it  seems  unnecessary ;  as  :  — 

Servus  meus  aufugit ;  is  est  in  provincia  tua,  a  slave  of 
mine  has  run  away ;  he  is  in  your  domain. 


DEMONSTRATIVE   AND   RELATIVE   PRONOUNS.        257 

b.  When  "that"  or  "those  of"  is  used  in  English  instead  of 
the  repetition  of  a  noun,  no  pronoun  is  used  in  Latin.  Thus  :  — 

Philippus  hostium  manus  saepe  vitavit.  sudrum  effugere  rion 
valuit,  Philip  often  escaped  the  hands  of  his  enemies,  but  did 
not  succeed  in  avoiding  those  of  his  own  subjects  (Curt.)  ;  Nu- 
mae  regnum  multo  erat  pacatius  quam  Romuli,  Numa's  reign 
was  much  more  peaceful  than  that  of  Romulus.  (Cf.  also 
353,  e). 

Relative  Pronouns. 

In  addition  to  what  was  said  in  342—344  about  rela- 
tive pronouns,  the  following  points  should  be  noted  :  — 

451.  The  relative  is  often  used  to  connect  an  indepen- 
dent sentence  with  what  has  gone  before,  where  in  English 
a  different  form  of  connection  is  used.     Thus  :  — 

Multas  ad  res  perutiles  Xenophontis  libri  sunt,  quos  legite, 
quaeso,  studiose,  Xenophon's  works  are  very  profitable  in  many 
respects,  and  I  beg  you  read  them  zealously  ;  quae  cum  ita 
sint,  Cat'Uina,  perge  quo  coepisti,  now  since  this  is  so,  Catiline, 
go  on  as  you  have  begun. 

a.  A  special  instance  of  this  connecting  relative  is  seen  in  the 
use  of  quod  si,  quod  nisi,  for  "  but  if,"  "  and  if,"  or  "  if  not," 
where  the  quod  is  really  accusative  of  specification. 

452.  The  Latin  expresses  "  such  is  my,  your,"  etc.,  and 
"  so-called,"  by  a  relative,  as  follows :  — 

Quae  tua  est  prudentia,  such  is  your  discretion  ;  si  miJu  ne- 
gotium  permisisses,  qui  meus  in  te  amor  est,  confecissem,  if 
you  had  entrusted  the  business  to  me,  I  should  have  accom- 
plished it,  such  is  my  love  for  you  ;  vestra  quae  dicitur  *  vita, 
your  so-called  life. 

453.  The  difference  between  Latin  and  English  use 
should   be  observed  in  relative  clauses  like  the   follow- 
ing:— 

Thrasybuld  corona  a  populo  data  est,   quam  quod  amor 

*  In  this  use  tlie  relative  clause  is  usually  thus  inserted  between  an  at- 
tributive and  its  noun. 


258  SYNTAX. 

clvium  dederat  nullam  habuit  invidiam,  a  wreath  was  given  by 
the  people  to  Thrasybulus  which  caused  no  envy  because  the 
love  of  his  countrymen  had  given  it ;  adsentior  Platorii  quern 
tu  quantl  facias  scio,  I  agree  with  Plato,  and  I  know  how  highly 
you  esteem  him ;  non  satis  politics  es  els  artibus,  quas  qui 
tenent  erudlt't  appellantur,  you  are  not  well  enough  perfected 
in  those  branches  which  cause  their  possessors  to  be  called  edu- 
cated. 

Indefinite    Pronouns. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  the  indefinite  pro- 
nouns should  be  noted :  — 

454.  Quisquam  is  the  most  general  of  the  indefi- 
nite pronouns,  and  means  "  anybody  at  all."  Quivis  and 
qmlibet  are  nearly  as  indefinite,  meaning  "  any  one  you 
please."  Thus :  — 

Quamdiu  quisquam,  erit,  qin  te  defendere  audeat,  vlves, 
as  long  as  there  shall  be  anybody  who  will  venture  to  defend 
you,  you  shall  live  (Cic.,  Cat.,  i.,  2,  6)  ;  si  quisquam  est  timi- 
dus  in  magnls  perlculoslsque  rebus,  is  egd  sum,  if  any  one  is 
timid  in  great  and  dangerous  things,  I  am  he  (Cic.,  Fam.,  vi., 
14,  i)  ;  cuivis  potest  accidere  quod  cuiquam  potest,  what 
can  happen  to  anybody  at  all,  can  happen  to  anybody  you  will 
(i.  e.,  to  everybody)  (Sen.,  Tr.,  11,  6)  ;  omnia  sunt  eiusmodl 
quivls  ut  perspicere  possit,  all  are  of  such  a  nature  that  any 
one  you  please  can  understand  them  (Cic.)  ;  hie  apud  mawres 
nostros  adhibebatur  peritus,  nunc  quilibet,  in  such  a  case  an 
expert  used  to  be  employed  in  the  time  of  our  ancestors,  now 
any  one  at  all  [will  do]  (Cic.)  ;  non  cuivis  homirii  contingit, 
it  does  not  fall  to  every  man's  good  fortune  (Hor.). 

a.  Sometimes  the  verb  part  of  quivls  and  quilibet  is  inflected. 
Thus  :  — 

Dominus  vino  quid  volet  faciet,  the  master  will  do  what- 
ever he  likes  with  the  wine  (Cato,  R.  JR.,  47  and  48,  2)  ;  fa- 
cile cui  velles  tuam  causam  probares,  you  could  have  proved 
your  case  to  any  one  you  wished  (Cic.,  Verr.,  iv.,  12,  28). 


INDEFINITE  PRONOUNS.  259 

455.  (1.)    Quisquam,  with  the   corresponding  adjec- 
tive ullus,  is  used  especially  in  negative  sentences,  or  sen- 
tences implying  a  negation.     Thus :  — 

Neque  ex  castrls  Catilinae  quisquam  omnium  dlscesserat, 
nor  had  any  one  at  all  deserted  from  Catiline's  camp  (Cic.)  ; 
nee  ullo  casu  potest  contingere  ut  ulla  intermlssio  flat  offici, 
nor  can  it  by  any  chance  happen  that  there  be  any  interruption 
of  the  obligation  of  duty  (Cic.)  ;  an  quisquam  potest  sine 
perturbatione  mentis  Irascl  ?  or  can  any  one  indulge  in  anger 
without  disturbance  of  his  mental  equipoise  ?  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  iv., 
24,  54)  ;  taetrior  hie  tyrannus  Syracusanls  fuit  quam  quis- 
quam superiorum,  this  tyrant  was  more  loathsome  to  the  peo- 
ple of  Syracuse  than  any  of  his  predecessors  (Cic.). 

a.  Instead  of  non  quisquam,  unless  the  pronoun  is  rather  em- 
phatic, nemo  or  nihil  is  used,  and  similarly  nullus  instead  of 
non  ullus.    Nullus,  besides  its  adjective  use,  supplies  the  place  of 
the  genitive  and  ablative  singular  and  the  plural  of  nemo,  and  the 
cases  of  nihil  other  than  nominative  and  accusative  singular.* 

b.  Nemo  is  used,  not  nullus,  with  adjectives  used  as  substan- 
tives ;  as,  nemo  Romanus,  no  Roman. 

456.  Quis    (qul)  is  the   unemphatic   "  any,"  "  one," 
and  is  used  chiefly  after  si,  nisi,  ne,  mem,  and  the  pro- 
nouns, as  quo,  quanta,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

Si  quis  mlratur,  if  any  one  wonders  ;  num.  quis  hoc  nescit  ? 
does  not  every  one  know  this  ?  iustitiae  prlmum  munus  est  ut 
ne  cui  quis  noceat,  the  first  injunction  of  justice  is  that  one 
shall  harm  no  one ;  detrahere  quid  de  aliquo,  to  take  away 
something  from  somebody. 

a.  After  si,  nisi,  ne,  num,  the  forms  quis  and  qul  are  used 
indifferently  as  substantives  or  adjectives  ;  otherwise,  as  with 
the  interrogative  pronoun,  quis  is  substantive,  qul,  adjective. 

457.  Aliquis,    some   one   or   other,    any   one,  is  less 
indefinite  than  quis,  as  is  seen  especially  after  si,  nisi,  ne, 
etc.     Thus :  — 

Si  est  aliqui   sens  us   in  morte  praeclarorum   virorum,    if 
*  There  is,  however,  also  a  declined  form  of  nihil.     (Cf.  137,  1,  a.) 


260  SYNTAX. 

illustrious  men  have  some  consciousness  when  dead  (Cic.,  Best., 
62,  isi) ;  timebat  Pompeius  omnia  ne  aliquid  vos  timer et-is, 
Poinpey  watched  all  things  with  anxiety  that  you  might  have 
no  anxiety  (Cic.). 

a.  Aliquis  is  especially  common  in  the  emphatic  meaning 
some  at  least.  Thus  :  — 

Est  hoc  aliquid,  tametsi  non  est  satis,  this  is  something  at 
least,  although  it  is  not  enough  (Cic.,  Caec.,  15,  47)  ;  multi  sine 
doctrina  aliquid  omnium  generum  et  artium  consequontur, 
many  without  teaching  acquire  something  in  all  branches  of 
learning  (Cic.). 

458.  Quisjpiam,  some  one,  is  more  definite  than  aliquis. 
Thus :  — 

Hereditas  est  pecunia,  quae  morte  alicuius  ad  quempiam 
pervenit  iure,  an  inheritance  is  money  which  at  some  one's 
death  comes  to  a  person  legally  (Cic.)  ;  quaeret  fortasse  quis- 
piam,  some  one  will  perhaps  ask. 

459.  Quid  am,  some  particular  one,  is  the  most  definite 
of  these  pronouns,  and  implies  that  a  person  or  thing  is 
definitely  known,  though  indefinitely  described.    Thus :  — 

Quldam  de  conlegis  nostris,  one  of  my  colleagues  (Cic.)  ; 
sets  me  quodam  tempore  Metapontum  venisse  tecum,  you  know 
that  at  a  certain  time  I  went  with  you  to  Metapontum  (Cic.). 

a.  Quidam  often  expresses  what  in  English  is  denoted  by 
"  a  sort  of ;  "  as  :  — 

Milvo  est  quoddam  bellum  naturale  cum  corvo,  the  kite 
has  a  sort  of  natural  antagonism  toward  the  crow  (Cic.,  N.  D., 
ii.,  49,  125). 

460.  When  only  two  persons  or  things  are  referred  to, 
the  following  pronouns  are  used :  — 

alter,  the  other.  uter  ?  which  ? 

neuter,  neither.  ut'erque,  both. 

Corresponding  to  the  following,  if  more  than  two  are 
referred  to  :  — 

alius,  another.  quis  ?  who  ? 

nemo,  nullus,  none.  quisque,  each. 


INDEFINITE    PRONOUNS.  —  THE   VERB.  261 

a.  Ambo  is  used  for  "  both  "  only  when  the  thing  said  applies 
in  the  same  way  to  the  two  objects ;  otherwise  uterque  is  used ; 
as  :  — 

Caesar  atque  Pompeius  dwersa  sibi  ambo  concilia  capiunt 
.  .  .  eddemque  die  uterque  eorum  ex  castris  exercitum  edu- 
cunt,  Caesar  and  Pompey  both  adopt  different  plans,  .  .  .  but 
on  the  same  day  both  lead  out  their  armies  from  camp  (Caes., 
B.  C.,  iii.,  30). 

b.  Alter  is  used  for  the  English  "  one's  neighbor ;  "  as  :  — 
Nihil  alterms  causa  facere,  to  do  nothing  for  one's  neigh- 
bor's sake. 

c.  The  following  distinctions  should  be  observed  :  — 

alter         =  the  other ;  alteri  =  the  other  party. 
alius         =  another ;      alii     =.  others. 
eeterl       =.  all  the  others,  the  rest. 
alteruter  =  one  or  the  other. 
Cf.  also  449,  2. 

d.  For  the  convenience  of  the  pupil  the  following  series  of 
the  words  for  number  is  given  :  — 

panel  —  a  few,  only  a  few. 

aliquot  =  some,  not  many,  several. 

nonnulli  =  some  (indeterminate). 

plures  —  several,  rather  many. 

multl  =  many. 

pluriml  =  very  many. 

plerlque  =  most. 
unusquisque  =•  each  and  all. 

SYNTAX  OF  THE  VERB. 

Tenses. 

461.  The  IMPERFECT,  PRESENT,  and  FUTURE  mark  an 
action  or  event  simply  as  taking  place  (beginning  or  con- 
tinuing) in  the  PRESENT,  PAST,  or  FUTURE  respectively. 

462.  The  PERFECT,  PLUPERFECT,  and  FUTURE  PERFECT 
mark  an  action  or  event  as  COMPLETED. 


262  SYNTAX. 

(1.)  The  PERFECT  marks  something  as  completed 
either  (a)  in  the  PRESENT  (perfect  DEFINITE)  or  (6)  in 
the  INDEFINITE  PAST  (i.  e.,  without  reference  to  any  other 
event  —  HISTORICAL  perfect  or  AORIST).*  Thus :  — 

(a.)  \_Natura~]  oculos  membranls  tenuissimts  vestivit  et 
saepsit,  nature  has  clothed  and  protected  the  eye  with  a  very 
delicate  membrane  (Cic.,  N.  D.,  ii.,  57,  142). 

(b.)  ltd  tantum  bellum  .  .  .  extrema  hieme  adparavit, 
ineunte  vere  suscepit,  media  aestate  c5nfecit,  thus  he  got 
ready  for  this  great  war  in  the  last  part  of  winter,  entered  upon 
it  at  the  beginning  of  spring,  and  finished  it  in  mid-summer 
(Cic.,  Leg.  Man.,  12,  35). 

(2.)  The  PLUPERFECT  marks  something  as  completed 
at  or  before  the  beginning  of  some  other  PAST  action  or 
event.  Thus :  — 

Pyrrhl  temporibus  iam  Apollo  versus  facer e  desierat,  in 
the  time  of  Pyrrhus  Apollo  had  already  ceased  to  give  oracles 
(Cic.,  Dw.,  ii.,  56,  116). 

(3.)  The  FUTURE  PERFECT  marks  something  as  com- 
pleted at  or  before  the  time  of  some  other  FUTURE  action 
or  event.  Thus  :  — 

Cum,  til  haec.  leges,  ego  Caesarem  fortasse  conveners, 
when  you  are  reading  this  I  shall  perhaps  have  met  Caesar. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  the  tenses  deserve  special 
mention  :  — 

463.  Statements  which  are  true  of  all  time,  and  have 
therefore  a  special  interest  in  the  present,  such  as  general 
truths,  are  expressed  by  the  present  tense.  Thus :  — 

Labor  omnla  vincit,  labor  conquers  all  things. 

a.  Sometimes  a  general  statement,  instead  of  being  thus 
directly  stated  by  the  present,  is  implied  by  a  perfect  (on  the 
principle  that  what  has  often  happened  is  the  natural  thing  to 

*  The  pupil  should  perhaps  be  warned  that  the  Romans  did  not  feel 
this  difference  as  we  feel  it.  Otherwise,  they  would  probably  have  ex- 
pressed it  by  a  difference  of  form. 


UNIVERSITY 


«  TJNIVER 

TENSES.  263 

expect).  The  perfect  in  this  use  is  sometimes  called  the  GNOMIC 
perfect,  but  the  general  nature  of  the  tense  in  these  cases  is 
so  evidently  perfect  that  a  special  name  seems  undesirable. 
Thus :  — 

Avaritia  pecuniae  studium  habet,  quam  nemo  sapiens  con- 
cuplvit,  greed  involves  a  zeal  for  money  which  no  wise  man 
desires*  (Sail.,  Cat.,  11,  3)  ;  ob  debilitatem  animl  multl  pa- 
rentes,  multl  amwos  nonnulll  patriam,  plerlque  autem  se  ipsos 
penitus  perdiderunt,  through  weakness  of  mind  many  utterly 
ruin  their  parents,  many  their  friends,  some  their  country,  and 
most  people  themselves  (Cic.,  Fin.,  i.,  15,  49)  ;  non  domus  et 
fundus,  non  aeris  acervus  et  auri  aegroto  domino  deduxit 
corpore  febres,  non  animo  curas,  not  houses  and  lands  nor  heaps 
of  coin  take  away  disease  from  the  ailing  body  of  their  owner 
or  care  from  his  mind  (Hor.,  Epist.,  i.,  2,  47). 

464.  The   present   and   imperfect   are   often   used  of 
repeated  or  customary  actions,  and  of  attempted  or  in- 
tended action's.     Thus  :  — 

Cottldie  in  senHtum  venit  Catilina,  Catiline  comes  daily  to 
the  Senate ;  haec  audiebant  antea,  nunc  vident,  they  used  to 
hear  these  things  before,  now  they  see  them ;  in  exsilium  eicie- 
bam  quern  iam  ingressum  esse  in  bellum  videbam  ?  was  I  try- 
ing to  drive  into  exile  a  man  who  I  saw  had  already  actually 
entered  upon  war?  (Cic.,  Cat.,  ii.,  6,  14). 

465.  The  present  is  used  in  giving  the  statements  of 
past  writers  whose  works  are  still  extant ;  as  :  — 

Homerus  dicit  e  Nestoris  lingua  melle  dulciorem  fluxisse 
sermonem,  Homer  says  that  from  Nestor's  tongue  flowed  speech 
sweeter  than  honey. 

466.  The   present   is  sometimes  used  instead  of   the 
historical   perfect    in   lively  narration,  to   make  a  more 
vivid  picture  (HISTORICAL  present).     Thus  :  — 

De"siliunt  ex  equls,  pr5volant  in  prlmum,  they  spring  from 
their  horses,  they  fly  to  the  front  (Llv.,  iii.,  62,  8). 

*  I.  e.,  none  ever  has  desired,  and  therefore  we  may  infer  that  none 
ever  will  do  so. 


264  SYNTAX. 

467.  With  ia?n  diidum,  iam   diu,  iam  pridem,  and 
sometimes  without  these  words,  the  present  and  imperfect 
are  used,  where  in  English  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  are 
preferred,  to  indicate  an  action  which  has  been  going  on 
some  time  and  is  still  going  on  (PRESENT),  or  which  at  a 
certain  past  time  had  been  and  was  still  going  on  (IM- 
PERFECT).    Thus :  — 

Iam  diu  ignore  quid  agas,  I  have  long  been  in  ignorance  as 
to  how  you  are ;  tot  anrios  bellum  gero,  all  these  years  I  have 
been  waging  war ;  audiebat  iam  dudum  verba,  he  had  heard 
the  words  for  some  time. 

468.  With  dum  (=  "  while  ")  the  present  is  regularly 
used  to  denote  an  action  going  on  at  the  same  time  as 
another,  even  when  the  two  actions  belong  to  past  time. 

Thus:  — 

Dum  ego  in  Sicilia  sum,  nidla  statua  deiecta  est,  while  I 
was  in  Sicily  not  a  statue  was  overthrown  (Cic.,  Vefr.,  ii.,  66, 161). 

NOTE.  In  the  meanings  "  until "  and  "  as  long  as,"  dum  takes  the  past 
tenses  for  past  actions.  Also  in  the  meaning  "  while,"  if  the  main  verb 
denotes  a  continued  action  or  state  (often  in  Livy  and  once  or  twice  earlier). 

469.  With   postquam    (posteaquam),    "  after,"    and 
with  the  expressions  for  "  as  soon  as  "  —  ubi,  ubl  primum, 
ut,  ut  primum,  cum  primum,  simul  dc  (simul  atque  or 
simul  alone),  —  the  perfect  is  the  regular  tense,  though 
the  pluperfect  would  seem  more  logically  exact.     Thus :  — 

Sed  postquam  aspexi,  illco  cognovi,  but  after  I  looked  at 
[it]  I  recognized  it  at  once  (Ter.,  Heaut.,  iv.,  1,  43)  ;  Pom- 
peius,  ut  equitatum  suum  pulsum  vidit,  acie  excessit,  as 
soon  as  Pompey  saw  his  cavalry  routed  he  withdrew  from  battle 
(Caes.,  B.  C.,  iii.,  94)  ;  cum  primum  Romam  veni,  nihil 
prius  faciendum  mihi  putavi,  quam  ut  tibi  gratularer,  as  soon 
as  I  (had)  reached  Rome,  I  thought  it  my  first  duty  to  tender 
you  my  congratulations. 

a.  But  the  imperfect  is  used  if  a  situation  is  to  be  described  as 
a  continued  action ;  the  pluperfect,  if  as  the  result  of  an  action  ; 
as :  — 


TENSES.  265 

Ut  domum  reducebatur,  fit  obviam  el  C.  Curio,  when  he 
was  being  escorted  home,  Gains  Curio  met  him ;  ut  ad  mare 
excubuerant,  accessere  hostes,  as  soon  as  they  had  got  their 
guard  posted,  the  enemy  drew  near. 

b.  Or  if  a  distinct  interval  of  time  has  elapsed  between  the 
event  introduced  by  postquam  and  the  main  event,  the  clause 
with  postquam  regularly  takes  the  pluperfect ;  as  :  — 

Hannibal  anno  tertio  postquam  domo  profugerat  cum 
qulnque  navibus  Africam  accessit,  in  the  third  year  after  he 
had  gone  into  exile,  Hannibal  went  to  Africa  with  five  ships 
(Nep.,  Han.,  8). 

Cf.  the  English  use  of  tenses  with  "  after  "  and  "  as  soon  as." 

470.  Other  cases  where  a  different  tense  is  used  in 
Latin  from  the  one  which  English  would  lead  us  to  ex- 
pect are  as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  In  letters  sometimes  an  imperfect  (or  historical  perfect) 
is  used  for  the  present,  or  a  pluperfect  for  a  perfect.  The 
writer  thus  puts  himself  at  the  time  when  the  letter  will  be  read 
(EPISTOLARY  imperfect  and  pluperfect).  Thus :  — 

Nihil  habebam  quod  scriberem ;  neque  enim  novl  quic- 
quam  audiveram,  I  have  nothing  to  write,  for  I  have  heard 
nothing  new. 

(2.)  A  perfect  or  pluperfect  is  used  in  dependent  clauses 
(especially  with  cum,  si,  etc.)  indicating  a  customary  action  or 
event,  where  English  usage  would  lead  us  to  expect  a  present 
or  imperfect.*  Thus  :  — 

Cum  ad  villam  vem,  hoc  ipsum  nihil  agere  et  plane  cessare 
me  delectat,  when  I  come  to  my  country  seat,  this  very  doing 
nothing  and  absolutely  resting  delight  me  (Cic.,  Or.,  2,  6)  ;  cum 
rosam  vlderat,  turn  incipere  ver  arbitrabatur,  whenever  he  saw 
a  rose,  he  thought  spring  was  beginning  (Cic.,  Verr.,  v.,  10,  27). 

(3.)  In  subordinate  clauses  depending  on  a  past  tense  and 
stating  something  which  was  true  at  the  time  mentioned  and  is 

*  The  present  or  imperfect  in  the  main  clause  shows  the  repetition  of 
the  act,  and  the  subordinate  clause  is  regarded  more  directly  from  the  time 
of  the  main  clause  than  in  English. 


266  SYNTAX. 

still  true,  the  imperfect  is  sometimes  used  where  the  present 
might  be  expected.  Thus  :  — 

Pastum  animantibus  large  et  copiose  ndtura  eum  qui  cuij^ie 
aptus  erat  comparavit,  nature  generously  and  abundantly  pre- 
pared for  the  animals  that  food  which  was  suited  to  each 
(Cic.,  N.  Z>.,  ii.,  47,  121) ;  vide,  ne,  cum  omries  rectae  animi 
adfectidms  virtute's  adpellentur,  non  sit  hoc  proprium  nomen 
omnium,  sed  ab  ea,  quae  Tina  ceterls  excellebat,  omnes  ndmi- 
natae  si-nt,  see,  lest,  while  all  right  dispositions  of  the  mind  are 
called  virtues,  this  name  does  not  properly  belong  to  all,  but  all 
are  named  from  the  one  which  in  itself  surpasses  all  the  others 
(Cic.,  Tusc.,  ii.,  18,  43). 

(4.)  The  imperfect  is  sometimes  used  to  express  surprise  at 
something  just  discovered,  though  it  has  been  going  on  for  some 
time  ;  as  :  — 

Ekeu,  pater  mi,  tn  hie  eras  ?  ah !  father,  you  here  ?  Cf . 
also  the  pluperfect,  haud  aspexeram,  I  didn't  see  [you]  (Ter., 
Ad..  373). 

(5.)  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  instead  of  a  future  per- 
fect to  indicate  vividly  what  will  happen  if  something  else  hap- 
pens (as  if  it  had  already  happened).  Thus  :  — 

[Brutus']  si  conservatus  erit,  vicimus,  if  Brutus  shall  be 
saved,  we  have  conquered  (Cic.,  Fam.,  xii.,  6,  2). 

471.  The  perfect  is  sometimes  used  to  express  what  has 
been  the  case,  but  is  so  no  longer.  Thus  :  — 

Fuimus  Troes,  we  are  no  longer  Trojans  (Verg.,  Aen..  ii., 
325)  ;  triste  enim  est  nomen  ipsum  carendl  qiria  snbicitur  haec 
vis:  habuit  non  habet,  for  the  very  word  "deprivation"  is 
melancholy,  because  the  meaning  "  had  but  has  no  longer " 
underlies  it  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  36,  87). 

a.  In  a  few  verbs  the  perfect,  pluperfect,  and  future  perfect 
have  acquired  the  meaning  of  the  present,  imperfect,  and  future 
of  a  kindred  verb.  Thus  :  ?iosco,  find  out ;  ndvt,  know  (i.  e., 
have  found  out).  So  odi  =  I  hate,  meminl  =.  I  remember. 

NOTE.  The  tenses  in  Latin  are  used  in  general  with  much  greater 
exactness  than  in  English,  and  the  Romans  were  particularly  fond  of  the 
future  perfect  tense. 


TENSES.  —  SUBJUNCTIVE   MOOD.  267 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MOOD. 

NOTE.  In  its  original  shape  in  the  Indo-European  the  sub- 
junctive seems  to  have  been  a  tense  rather  than  a  mood,  having 
about  the  meaning  indicated  by  the  English  "  am  going  to." 
This  meaning  soon  broadened  so  as  to  include  that  kind  of  in- 
determinate futurity  involved  in  the  ideas  which  we  express  by 
"  may,"  "  could,"  "would,"  etc.  It  is  this  quality  in  the  mood 
as  we  find  it  in  Latin  which  explains  the  absence  of  special 
future  tense  forms,*  and  which  is  also  at  the  bottom  of  the  dis- 
tinction which  grew  up  between  the  subjunctive  and  the  indica- 
tive ;  namely,  that  while  the  indicative  represents  a  thing  as  a 
fact  of  the  past,  present,  or  future,  the  subjunctive  came  to  mark 
a  thing  as  something  conceived  in  the  mind  merely  (i.  e.,  as 
something  which  might  or  would  be  a  fact,  if  the  thinker's  idea 
should  be  realized).  This  notion  of  indeterminate  futurity  is 
more  or  less  distinctly  traceable  in  the  four  uses  of  the  subjunc- 
tive in  Independent  Sentences.  (See  472-475.) 

SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  INDEPENDENT  SENTENCES. 

Hortatory  Subjunctive. 
472.  The   HORTATORY   subjunctive   expresses  (1)  an 

EXHORTATION  Or  ENTREATY  ;  (2)  a  COMMAND  Or  PROHI- 
BITION ;  (3)  an  OBLIGATION  ;  (4)  a  CONCESSION.  The 
negative  is  ne.  Thus  :  — 

(1.)  Meminerimus  etiam  adversus  Infimos  iustitiam  esse 
servandam,  let  us  remember  that  justice  must  be  observed  even 
towards  the  humblest  (Cic.,  Off.,  i.,  13,  4l). 

(2.)  Vlribus  utare,  dum  adsint,  cum  absint,  ne  requlras, 
use  your  strength  while  it  lasts,  but  when  it  is  gone  do  not  pine 
for  it  (Cic.,  Sen.,  10,  33)  ;  suum  quisque  n5scat  ingenium,  let 
every  one  study  his  own  temperament ;  donls  impil  ne  placare 
audeant  deos,  let  not  the  impious  venture  to  try  to  propitiate 

*  If  it  was  desirable  to  guard  against  a  possible  ambiguity,  or  to  empha- 
size distinctly  the  notion  of  futurity,  the  Romans  used  periphrastic  forms 
(facturus  sim,  essem,  etc.). 


268  SYNTAX. 

the  gods  with  gifts  (Cic.)  ;  nikil  incommodo  valetudinis  tuae 
feceris,  do  nothing  prejudicial  to  your  health  (Cic.). 

(3.)  Ut  homost,  ita  morem  geras,  you  must  regulate  your 
conduct  by  the  character  of  your  master  (i.  e.,  like  master,  like 
man)  (Ter.,  Ad.,  431) ;  quae  hlc  erant,  curares,  you  should 
have  looked  out  for  what  were  here  (Ter.,  Hec,,  230)  ;  ne 
po2joscisses,  you  should  not  have  asked  (Cic.,  Att.,  iL,  1,  3). 

(4.)  Sed  ierit  ad  bellum,  dissenserit  non  a  te  solum, 
verum  etiam  a  fratribus  :  hi  te  orant  tul,  but  grant  that  he 
went  to  the  war,  that  he  took  the  other  side  not  only  from  you 
but  also  from  his  brothers  :  they  —  and  they  were  on  your  side 
—  beg  you  [to  spare  him]  (Cic.,  Lig.,  12,  35) ;  ne  sint  in 
seneetute  vires :  ne  postulantur  quidem  vires  a  seneetute, 
suppose  there  is  no  strength  in  old  age:  neither  is  strength 
demanded  from  old  age  (Cic.,  Sen.,  11,  34)  ;  decies  centena 
dedisses  huic  pared  panels  contento,  suppose  you  had  given 
this  frugal  fellow  whose  wants  are  few  some  million  or  so 
(Hop.,  Sat.,  i.,  3,  15). 

a.  The  singular  of  the  second  person  of  the  present  tense 
is  not  used,  until  after  Livy's  time,  for  commands,  exhortations, 
or  prohibitions,  unless  the  subject  is  indefinite  (i.  e.,  "you"  = 
"  any  one  ").     (Cf.  the  examples.) 

b.  In  the  perfect  tense  the   second  person  is  used  in  com- 
mands and  exhortations  only  when  they  are  negative  (i.  e.,  when 
they  are  really  prohibitions).     The  imperative  is  used  for  posi- 
tive commands,  etc.     (See  527.) 

c.  The  perfect  and  pluperfect  differ  from  the  present  and  im- 
perfect respectively  only  in  the  greater  precision  which  comes 
from  the  notion  of  completed  action,  but  even  this  distinction  in 
the  case  of  the  present  and  perfect  is  almost  intangibly  subtle. 

d.  Commands,  exhortations,  entreaties,  and  prohibitions  natu- 
rally occur  only  in  the  primary  tenses  (present  and  perfect). 

Optative  Subjunctive, 

473.  The  OPTATIVE  subjunctive  is  used  to  express  a 
wish,  sometimes  alone,  sometimes  with  utinam  or  ut, 
"  O  that !  "  The  negative  is  ne.  Thus  :  — 


SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  INDEPENDENT  SENTENCES.   269 

Valeant  ewes  mel,  sint  incolumes,  sint  beati,  may  my 
countrymen  prosper  in  safety  and  happiness  (Cic.,  Mil.,  34, 
93)  ;  ne  vivam  si  sew,  may  I  die,  if  I  know  (Cic.,  Att.,  iv., 
16)  ;  falsus  utinam  votes  sim,  oh,  may  I  prove  mistaken  in  my 
prophecy !  (Liv.,  xxi.,  10,  10) ;  utinam  P.  Clodius  viveret, 
would  that  Publius  Clodius  were  living  !  (Cic.,  Mil.,  38,  103)  ; 
utinam  me  mortuum  vidisses,  would  that  you  had  seen  me 
dead  (Cic.,  Q.  Fr.,  i.,  3,  l). 

a.  The  present  and  perfect  imply  nothing  as  to  the  fulfillment 
of  the  wish,  but  the  perfect  is  chiefly  confined  to  early  Latin 
and  the  poets.     The  imperfect  implies  the  non-fulfillment  of  the 
wish  in  present  time,  the  pluperfect  in  past  time. 

b.  Utinam  or  ut  is  almost   always   used  when  the  tense  is 
imperfect  or  pluperfect.     These  particles  tend  to  give  more  for- 
mality or  solemnity  to  the  expression  of  the  wish. 

c.  Sometimes  instead  of  the  simple  subjunctive,  velim,  riolim, 
malim,  vellem,  riollem,  mallem,  or  cuperem,  is  used  with  the 
substance   of   the  wish  added  in  the  infinitive  or  subjunctive. 
Thus:  — 

Tuam  mih*  dari  velim,  Cotta,  eloquentiam,  I  wish  your  elo- 
quence might  be  given  me,  Cotta  (Cic.,  N.  D.,  ii.,  59,  147)  ; 
vellem  adesse  posset  Panaetius,  would  that  Panaetius  could 
be  here  now. 

NOTE.  Here  velim,  nollem,  etc.,  are  potential  subjunctives  (see  474). 
For  the  dependent  subjunctive  (like  posset  in  the  second  example),  see 
491. 

Potential  Subjunctive. 

474.  The  POTENTIAL  subjunctive  is  used  to  express 
the  shades  of  possibility  and  kindred  ideas  indicated  in 
English  by  an  unemphatic  "  may,"  "  might,"  "  can," 
"could,"  or  "would."  The  negative  i's  non  (hand,  etc.). 
Thus :  — 

Hie  quaerat  quispiam,  at  this  point  some  one  may  ask  (Cic., 
N.  D.,  ii.,  53,  133)  ;  Platonem  nee  nimis  valde  nee  nimis 
saepe  laudaveris,  you  cannot  [could  not]  praise  Plato  too  highly 
or  too  often  (Cic.,  Legg.,  iii.,  1,  l)  ;  Me  sine  ulla  dubitcitidne 


270  SYNTAX. 

conflrmaverim  eloquentiam  rem  esse  omnium  difficillimam, 
this  I  would  venture  to  assert  without  any  hesitation,  that  elo- 
quence is  the  hardest  thing  in  the  world  [to  acquire]  (Cic., 
Brut.,  6,  25)  ;  itaque  baud  facile  discerneres  utrum  impe- 
ratori  an  exercitui  cdrior  esset,  therefore  you  could  not  easily 
tell  whether  he  [Hannibal]  was  dearer  to  the  general  or  to  the 
army  (Liv.,  xxi.,  4,  3)  ;  nillla  profecto  alia  gens  tanta  mole 
cladis  non  obruta  esset,  any  other  nation  would  have  been 
buried  beneath  such  a  mass  of  disaster  (Liv.,  xxii.,  54,  10), 

a.  The  primary  tenses  are  used  when  the  situation  referred 
to  is  present,  the  secondary  tenses  when  a  past  situation  is  in- 
volved.    The  distinction  between  the  perfect  and  pluperfect  on 
the  one  hand  and  the  present  and  imperfect  on  the  other  is  the 
same  as  in  the  hortatory  use  of  the  subjunctive.     (See  472,  c.) 

b.  The  potential  subjunctive  is  often  used  to  put  a  statement 
mildly  for  courtesy's  sake,  and  is  then  called  by  the  special 
name  Subiunc&vus  modestiae.     Thus:  — 

Pace  tud,  patria,  dlxerim,  with  your  permission,  O  my 
country,  I  would  say  (Cic.,  Mil.,  38,  103)  ;  baud  sciam  an,  I 
could  not  tell  whether  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  iii.,  24,  55).  Cf.  also  the 
third  example,  above  (conftrmaverim). 

c.  The  second  person  singular  of  a  general  subject  ("  you  "  = 
'*  one,"  "  anybody  ")  is  especially  common  :  as  :  — 

Quern  neque  gloria  neque  pericula  excitant,  nequtquam  hor- 
tere.  him,  whom  neither  glory  nor  danger  rouses,  you  will  ex- 
hort in  vain  (Sail.,  Cat.,  58,  2).  Cf.  also  the  second  example, 
above  (laudaveris} . 

d.  If  the  potential  idea  is  to  be  brought  out  emphatically,  the 
verbs  possum,  can,  and  licet,  may,  are  used.     With  these  and 
similar  verbs,  as  debed,  oportet,  etc.,  and  with  adjectives  of  like 
meaning  used  with  sum,  sometimes  also  others,  the  indicative  is 
often  used  where  a  potential  subjunctive  might  be  expected.  The 
potential  idea  is  here  sufficiently  indicated  by  the  meaning  of 
the  word  used.     Thus  :  — 

Perturbationes  animorum  poteram  morbos  appellare,  sed 
non  convenlret  ad  omnia,  I  might  call  disturbances  of  the  soul 


SUBJUNCTIVE  IN  INDEPENDENT  CLAUSES.     271 

diseases,  but  [the  word]  would  not  apply  to  all  cases  (Cic.,  Fin., 
iii.,  10,  35) ;  quanta  melius  fuerat,  in  hoc  promlssum  patris 
non  esse  servatum,  how  much  better  it  would  have  been  in  this 
case  for  the  father's  promise  not  to  have  been  kept  (Cic.,  Off", 
iii.,  25,  94)  ;  fuit  tanti,  mihl  crede  ;  haberes  quod  defenderes, 
it  would  have  been  worth  the  price,  believe  me ;  you  would  have 
some  defense;  possum persequi permult a  ohlectamenta  rerum 
riisticarum,  sed  ea  ipsa,  quae  dlxl,  sentio  fuisse  longwra,  I 
might  tell  of  very  many  delights  of  farming,  but  I  feel  that 
what  I  have  said  has  itself  been  rather  long  (Cic.,  Sen.,  16,  55)  ; 
longum  est  ea  dwere ;  sed  hoc  breve  dlcam,  it  were  a  long 
task  to  say  that,  but  this  I  will  say  briefly  (Cic.,  Sest.,  5,  12). 

NOTE.  The  present  indicative  is  thus  often  used  where  in  English  the 
past  potential  is  preferred,  as  in  the  last  two  examples. 

Dubitativo  Subjunctive. 

475.  The  DUBITATIVE  subjunctive  is  used  to  put  a 
question  for  rhetorical  effect,  where  no  answer  is  ex- 
pected. Thus  :  — 

Quid  faciam,  what  can  I  do  ?  (Hor.,  Sat.,  ii.,  1,  24)  ; 
quid  facerem,  what  could  I  do  ?  (Verg.,  EC.,  i.,  40)  ;  quid 
hoc  homine  f  aciatis,  what  would  you  do  with  such  a  man  ?  sed 
quaero  a  te,  cur  C.  Corrielium  non  defenderem,  but  I  ask 
you,  why  should  I  not  have  undertaken  the  defense  of  Gaius 
Cornelius  ?  (Cic.,  Vat.,  2,  5)  ;  ego  te  ^idere  noluerim,  I  un- 
willing to  see  you  ? 

a.  The  present  (or  future)  applies  to  a  present  situation,  the 
imperfect  and  (rare)  perfect  to  a  past  situation.  Further- 
more, in  questions  in  positive  form  the  present  implies  doubt 
simply,  the  imperfect  implies  that  no  other  course  than  the  one 
adopted  was  natural  or  possible.  Questions  in  negative  form 
imply  that  the  doubt  suggested  is  too  preposterous  to  consider. 
(Cf.  the  examples.) 

NOTE.  The  potential  and  dubitative  subjunctives  may,  of  course,  oc- 
cur in  dependent  clauses,  especially  in  indirect  questions.  Thus  :  — 

Hoc  spatio  plura  facinora  in  se  victl  ediderunt  quam  infestl  edidisseiit 
victores,  during  this  time  the  conquered  performed  more  hostile  acts  against 


272  SYNTAX. 

themselves  than  angry  conquerors  would  have  done  (Liv. ,  xxxi.,  18,  8) ; 
pudet ;  nee  quid  again  neque  quid  huic  respondeam  scio,  I  am  ashamed, 
and  know  not  what  to  do  or  what  answer  to  give  him  (Ter.,  Ad.,  485  ) 

Cf.  also  the  Constructions  of  Indirect  Discourse,  514  ff. 

For  Concessive  Dependent  Clauses  see  478-480. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   IN   DEPENDENT   CLAUSES. 
Conditional  Sentences. 

NOTE.  The  clause  containing  the  condition  proper  (i.  e,,  the  "if" 
clause)  is  called  the  PROTASIS,  the  other  clause  the  APODOSIS  or  conclu- 
sion. 

476.  (1.)  The  INDICATIVE  is  used  in  conditional 
sentences  to  denote  what  is,  was,  or  will  be  true,  if  some- 
thing else  is,  was,  or  shall  be  true. 

(2.)  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  is  used  in  conditional  sentences 
to  denote  what  would  be  or  would  have  been  true,  if 
something  else  were,  should  be,  or  had  been  true. 

a.  With  the  indicative,  therefore,  the  supposed  case  is  treated 
as  a,  fact,  as  to  the  existence  of  which  the  speaker  or  writer  is 
uncertain ;  with  the  primary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  the  sup- 
posed case  is  treated  as  something  merely  assumed  for  argu- 
ment ;  with  the  secondary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  the  supposed 
case  is  treated  as  not  a  fact. 

b.  The  perfect  subjunctive  differs  from  the  present  only  in 
marking  completed  action.      The  imperfect  refers  to  present 
time  or  to  a  state  or  continued  action  in  the  past ;  the  pluperfect 
to  past  time. 

NOTE.  The  indicative  implies  nothing  as  to  the  reality  of  the  protasis, 
but  ASSERTS  the  reality  of  the  apodosis,  if  the  reality  of  the  protasis  be 
granted.  The  primary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive,  in  representing  the  case 
as  merely  assumed,  hint  that  it  is  not  actual,  hut  indicate  nothing  as  to  its 
probability  or  even  possibility,  except  that  in  so  far  as  they  involve  a  refer- 
ence to  the  future  they  do  not  mark  the  case  as  distinctly  impossible.  The 
secondary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  mark  the  case  distinctly  as  not  actual, 
and  are  the  only  tenses  that  can  be  used  when  the  supposed  case  is  impos- 
sible, although  they  do  not  themselves  mark  it  as  impossible  or  even  im- 
probable. Thus : — 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES. 


273 


477.    INDICATIVE. 

Si  id  facis,  hodie  postre- 
mum  me  vides,  if  this  is  what 
you  are  doing  you  see  me  to- 
day for  the  last  time  (Ter., 
And.,  322). 

Quid?  si  tyrannidem  oc- 
cupdre,  si  patriam  prodere 
conabitur  pater,  silebitne 
filius  ?  again,  if  a  father  at- 
tempt to  make  himself  ruler 
unconstitutionally,  if  he  try  to 
betray  his  country,  will  the  son 
keep  silent  about  it  ?  (Cic.,  Off., 
iii.,  23,  90). 

Si  miki  bond  re  publica 
frui  rion  licuerit,  at  carebo 
mala,,  if  I  may  not  enjoy  a 
good  government  I  shall  at 
least  not  live  under  a  bad  one 
(Cic.,  Mil,  34,  93). 

Rationem  antlqul  philo- 
sophl  sententiae  suae  rion  fere 
reddebant,  nisi  quid  erat 
numeris  aut  descrlptionibus 
explicandum,  the  philosophers 
of  old  were  not  in  the  habit 
of  giving  an  account  of  their 
opinions  unless  they  had  to  ex- 
plain something  by  arithmetic 
or  geometry  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  17, 
38). 

Sic  agam :  si  quid  venale 
habuit  Heius,  si  id,  quantl 
aestimdbat,  tantl  vendidit, 
desino  quaerere  cur  emeris, 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Ego  si  Scipionis  deside- 
rio  me  moverl  negem,  men- 
tiar,  if  I  should  say  that  I  was 
not  affected  by  a  longing  for 
Scipio,  I  should  lie  (Cic.,  Am., 
3,  10). 

Si  gladium  quis  apud  te 
sana  mente  deposuerit,  re- 
petat  msaniens,  reddere  pec- 
catum  sit,  if  anybody  should, 
being  in  sound  mind,  put  a 
sword  into  your  keeping  and 
demand  it  in  a  fit  of  insanity, 
it  would  be  wrong  to  return  it 
(Cic.,  Off.,  iii.,  25,  95). 

Si  aut  collegam,  id  quod 
mdllem,  tul  similem,  L.Aemi- 
11,  haberes,  aut  tu  collegae  tul 
esses  similis,  supervacanea 
esset  ordtio  mea,  if  you  had, 
as  I  should  prefer,  a  colleague 
like  yourself,  Lucius  Aemilius, 
or  if  you  were  like  your  col- 
league, my  words  would  be  su- 
perfluous (Liv.,  xxii.,  39,  l). 

Nunc  quemadmodum  au- 
diar  sentw,  at  turn  si  dice- 
rem,  rion  aucHrer,  I  see  how 
attentively  I  am  listened  to 
now,  but  if  I  had  spoken  then 
I  should  not  have  been  listened 
to  (Cic.,  Clu.,  29,  80). 

SI  Metelli  fidei  diffisus 
essem,  iudicem  eum  rion  re- 
tinuissem,  if  I  had  distrusted 


274  SYNTAX. 

I  will  put  it  in  this  way  :  if  the  honor  of  Metellus,  I  should 

Heius  had  anything  to  sell,  and  not  have  retained  him  upon  the 

if  he  sold  it  for  as  much  as  he  jury  (cf.  Cic.,  Verr.,  Act  1,  31). 

asked,   I   stop   inquiring   why  Ergo  eg§  nisi  peperissem, 

you  bought  it  (Cic.,  Verr.,  iv.,  Roma,   rion    oppugnaretur  ; 

5,  10).  nisi  f  ilium  haberem,  Itoera 

Vel    officio,     si    quid    de-  in  llbera  patrid  mortua  es- 

buerat,    vel   errori,    si    quid  sem,  therefore,  if  I  had  not 

nescierat,    satisfactum    esse  been   a  mother,  Rome   would 

duxit,  he  thought  he  had  met  not  be  under  siege ;   if   I  did 

all  the  demands  of  allegiance  not  have  a  son,  I  should  have 

if  he  had  owed  any,  and  had  died  in  freedom  in  a  free  coun- 

made  good  his  error  if  through  try  (LivM  ii.,  40). 
ignorance   he   had   made    any 
(Cic.,  Deiot.,  5,  13). 

a.  The  idea  of  non-fulfillment  is  not  inherent  in  the  secon- 
dary tenses  of  the    subjunctive    themselves.     This  idea  comes 
from  the  feeling  that  the  past  is  settled  and  irrevocable,  and 
thus  when  a  supposed  case  is  referred  to  the  past  there  is  a 
much  stronger  feeling  that  the  real  state  of  the  case  was  dif- 
ferent than  when    a    supposed  case  is  referred  to  the  present 
or  future.     It  occasionally  happens,  however,  that  a  supposition 
is  thrown  into  the  past  without  any  implication  as  to  its  fulfill- 
ment,   and   then   the  secondary  tenses  of   the  subjunctive  are 
still  used  in  Latin.     Thus  :  — 

Si  conlibuisset,  ab  duo  usque  ad  mala  citaret  "  id  Boo 
ckae,"  if  the  fancy  had  seized  him,  he  would  shout  "  Ho  I  Bac- 
chants," till  he  dropped  *  (Hor.,  Sat.,  i.,  3,  6). 

b.  The  distinction  between  the  primary  and  secondary  tenses 
as  to  the  implication  of  non-fulfillment   had    not   yet   become 
fully  established  in  the  times  of  Plautus  and  Terence,  and  the 
present  in  their  plays  sometimes  occurs  of  unfulfilled  conditions. 
Thus  :  — 

*  Literally,  from  the  egg  to  the  apples,  i.  e.,  from  beginning  to  end. 
Cf.,  in  English,  "  from  the  soup  to  the  fruit  course." 

For  the  much  commoner  occurrence  of  this  use  in  Indirect  Discourse 
(real  or  implied),  see  516. 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  275 

Adsum :  nam  si  absim,  haud  recusem,  quln  mihi  male 
sit,  mel  meum,  I  am  here,  for  if  I  were  away,  I  should  make 
no  objection  to  its  going  hard  with  me,  my  honey  (Plaut.,  Cure., 
164)  ;  tu  si  hie  sis,  aliter  sentias,  if  you  were  in  my  shoes, 
you  would  feel  differently  (Ter.,  And.,  310). 

c.  With  verbs   like  possum,  debed,  licet,  etc.,  and  other  ex- 
pressions   which    in    themselves    denote    necessity,    possibility, 
power,   duty,  and  the  like,   the  indicative   (imperfect,  perfect, 
or  pluperfect)  is  regularly  used  in  classical  Latin  in  the  apodo- 
ses  of  conditions  contrary  to  fact,  where  with  other  verbs  the 
imperfect  or  pluperfect  subjunctive  is  used.     Thus  :  — 

Quod  esse  caput  debebat,  si  probarl  posset,  and  this 
ought  to  be  the  main  point,  if  it  could  be  proved  [as  it  cannot] 
(Cic.,  Fm.,  iv.,  23)  ;  si  unum  diem  morati  essetis,  morien- 
dum  omnibus  fuit,  if  you  had  delayed  a  single  day,  all  would 
have  had  to  die  ;  si  mihi  nondum  aetds  vacationem  daret 
tamen  aequum  erat  me  dlmltti,  if  my  age  did  not  yet  justify 
my  exemption  (as  it  does),  yet  it  were  just  that  I  should  be 
discharged. 

Cf.  also,  under  Potential  Subjunctive,  474,  d. 

d.  GENERAL  CONDITIONS  (i.  e.,  such  as  denote  what  repeat- 
edly or  always  happens  under  certain  circumstances)  are  ex- 
pressed in  Latin  by  the  indicative,  except  in  the  two  following 
cases : — 

(1.)  The  protasis  has  the  subjunctive  in  the  second  person 
singular  of  the  present  when  the  subject  is  indefinite  (i.  e., 
"  you  "  =  "  any  one  "),  while  in  the  other  persons  the  indicative 
is  employed,  however  general  the  application  of  the  thing  said. 
Thus  :  — 

\_Mens  quoque  et  animus, ~\  nisi  tamquam  luminl  oleum  In- 
stilles,  exstinguuntur  senectute,  unless  you  drop  oil  into  the 
lamp  of  the  mind  and  soul,  so  to  speak,  their  light  goes  out  in 
old  age  (Cic.,  Sen.,  11,  36)  ;  but,  parvi  sunt  foris  arma,  nisi 
est  consilium  dornl,  prowess  of  arms  abroad  is  of  little  worth 
unless  there  be  wisdom  at  home  (Cic.,  Off.,  i.,  22,  76). 

(2.)  If  the  general  condition  refers  to  the  past,  the  protasis 


276  SYNTAX. 

has  the  imperfect  (or  pluperfect)  subjunctive  in  the  Augustan 
poets  and  later  writers  of  both  verse  and  prose,  where  the  re- 
publican writers  use  the  indicative.  Thus  :  — 

Accusatores,  slfacultas  incideret.  poenls  adficiebantur,  the 
accusers  were  [in  every  case]  visited  with  punishment,  if  oppor- 
tunity offered  (Tac.,  Ann.,  vi.,  30)  ;  but,  si  quod  erat  grande 
vas  aut  mains  opus  inventum,  laeti  adferebant,  if  any  large 
vase  or  considerable  work  of  art  was  found,  they  carried  it  to 
him  [Verres]  with  joy  (Cic.,  Verr.,  iv.,  21,  47). 

NOTE.  The  subjunctive  in  case  (2)  is  a  product  of  Greek  influence. 
It  -will  be  seen  that  in  both  (1)  and  (2)  the  apodosis  has  the  indicative. 
(Cf.  also  508,  and  510,  1.) 

e.  The  protasis  may  be  implied  in  some  other  form  of  expres- 
sion. Thus  :  — 

Roges  me,  qualem  naturam  deorum  esse  ducam,  nih'il  for- 
tasse  respondeam,  ask  me  what  I  think  the  nature  of  the 
gods  is,  and  I  shall  perhaps  have  no  answer  to  make  (Cic.,  N. 
D.,  i.,  21,  57) ;  nam  absque  te  esset,  hodie  numquam  ad 
solem  occasum  viverem,  for  had  it  not  been  for  you,  I  should 
never  have  lived  to  see  the  sun  set  to-day  (Plaut.,  3fewz.,1024)  ; 
rion  mihi,  nisi  admonito,  venisset  in  mentem,  I  should  not 
have  thought  [of  it]  unless  reminded  (Cic.,  de  Or.,  ii.,  42, 
180)  ;  nemo  umquam,  sine  magna  spe  immortalitatis,  se 
pro  patrw  of  ferret  ad  mortem,  no  one  would  ever  expose  him- 
self to  death  for  his  country  without  a  great  hope  of  immortal 
glory  [such  as  he  now  has]  (Cic.,  TTisc.,  i.,  15,  32). 

NOTE.  In  the  development  of  language  coordinate  sentences  were  earlier 
than  the  subordinate  constructions.  This  is  well  illustrated  in  such  a  sen- 
tence as  the  first  example  under  e.  It  is  but  one  step  from  roges  me, 
nihil  respondeam,  to  si  me  roges,  nihil  respondeam.  The  protasis  in  all 
subjunctive  conditions  was  in  this  way  developed  from  the  hortatory  sub- 
junctive, while  the  apodosis  grew  from  the  potential  use,  the  two  being  col- 
lateral offshoots  from  the  original  notion  of  indeterminate  futurity. 

/.  So  one  form  of  expression  may  be  used  in  the  protasis,  an- 
other in  the  apodosis ;  and  shades  of  meaning  are  thus  some- 
times indicated,  especially  by  the  poets,  which  can  hardly  be  re- 
tained in  an  English  translation.  Thus :  — 


CONDITIONAL   SENTENCES.  —  CONCESSIVE   CLAUSES.    277 

Atque  adeo,  si  facere  possim,  pietas  prohibet,  and  in  fact 
filial  affection  prevents,  supposing  I  could  do  it  (Plaut.,  Ps., 
290) ;  cantus  et  e  curru  Lunam  deducere  temptat,  et  f  aceret, 
si  rion  aera  repulsa  sonent,  incantation  tries  to  draw  down  the 
moon  from  her  chariot,  and  would  do  it  if  the  cymbals  were  not 
beaten  till  the  echo  [prevented]  (Tib.,  i.,  8,  21)  ;  si  volebas 
participari,  auferres  dimidium  domum,  if  you  wanted  to  take 
a  share,  you  might  take  half  home  (PL,  True.,  iv.,  2,  55)  ; 
mirer,  si  vana  vestra  auctoritas  ad  plebem  est,  I  should  won- 
der if  your  influence  counts  for  nothing  with  the  commons 
(Liv.,  iii.,  21,  4)  ;  si  ipsa  ratio  minus  perficiet,  ut  mortem 
neglegere  posslmus,  at  vita  acta  perfieiat,  ut  satis  superque 
vlxisse  videamur,  if  Reason  herself  does  not  make  me  indif- 
ferent to  death,  yet  the  experience  of  life  would  make  me  seem 
to  have  lived  quite  long  enough  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  45,  109)  ;  Flavl, 
delicias  tuas  Catullo,  nei  sint  inlepidae  atque  inelegantes, 
velles  dwere  nee  tacere  posses,  you  would  want  to  tell  Catul- 
lus of  your  love,  Flavius,  and  could  not  keep  silent  unless  she 
be  sordid  and  not  very  nice  (Cat.,  6,  iff). 

Concessive  Glauses. 

478.  With  si,  si  maxima,  etsl,  tametsi,  etiam  si,  con- 
cessive clauses  take  the  indicative  or  subjunctive  under 
precisely  the  same  circumstances  as  conditional  clauses 
with  si.  Thus  :  — 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

In  quibus  si  moderatio  Si  haec  rion  gesta  audire- 
illa,  quae  in  nostrls  solet  esse  tis,  sed  picta  videretis,  ta~ 
consulibus,  n5n  fuit,  at  fuit  men  appareret  uter  esset  1n- 
pompa,  fuit  species,  even  if  sidiator,  even  if  you  were  not 
they  had  not  that  evenness  of  listening  to  these  things  as 
character  which  our  consuls  events  described,  but  were  look- 
are  wont  to  have,  yet  they  had  ing  at  them  delineated  in  col- 
an  impressive  dignity  of  man-  or,  yet  you  could  tell  which 
ner  (Cic.,  Pis.,  11,  24).  was  the  one  who  laid  the 

Nam  si  ego  dlgna  hdc  con-  snare  (Cic.,  Mil.,  20,  54). 


278 


SYNTAX. 


tumelia  sum  maxume,  at  tu 
indignus,  qul  faceres  tamen, 
for  even  though  I  deserve  this 
insult  ever  so  much,  yet  you 
were  not  the  one  to  put  it 
upon  me  (Ter.,  Eun.,  865). 

Caesar,  etsi  nondum  eorum 
consilia  cognoverat,  tamen 
ex  eo,  quod  obsides  dare  inter- 
miser  ant,  fore  id,  quod  acci- 
dit,  suspicabatur,  although 
Caesar  had  not  yet  discovered 
their  designs,  yet  from  the  fact 
that  they  had  neglected  to  send 
the  usual  hostages,  he  began 
to  suspect  what  proved  to  be 
the  case  (Caes.,  S.  G.,  iv.,  31). 

Tametsi  statim  vicisse  de- 
bed,  tamen  de  meo  iure  de- 
cedam,  although  an  immediate 
victory  is  rightfully  mine,  I 
will  retire  from  my  right 
(Cic.,  Rose.  Am.,  27,  73). 

Quod  crebro  [_quis~\  videt, 
non  mlratur,  etiam  si  cur 
flat  nescit,  what  one  sees  fre- 
quently he  does  not  marvel  at, 
even  if  he  does  not  know  its 
cause  (Cic.,  Div.,  ii.,  22,  49). 

Etiam  si  quid  scribas  non 
habebis,  scribito  tamen,  even 
though  you  (shall)  have  no- 
thing to  write,  nevertheless 
write  (Cic.,  Fam.,  xvi.,  26,2). 

Nam  ista  veritas  etiam  si 
iucunda  non  est,  mihi  tamen 
grata  est,  for  that  truth,  al- 


Neque  enim,  si  maxime 
statuae  deiectae  essent, 
eas  ego  vobis  possem  iacentes 
ostendere,  for  even  if  the  sta- 
tues were  altogether  scattered 
upon  the  ground,  I  could  not 
show  them  to  you,  as  they 
lay  there  (Cic.,  Verr.,  ii.,  68, 
164). 

Etsi  nihil  aliud  Sullae 
nisi  comulatum  abstulisse- 
tis,  tamen  eo  contentos  vos 
esse  oportebat,  though  you 
had  taken  nothing  else  from 
Sulla  than  the  consulship,  yet 
you  ought  to  be  satisfied  with 
that  (Cic.,  Sull,  32,  90). 

Sed  tametsi  iam  ita  con- 
stituisses,  ut  abesse  perpetud 
mattes  quam  ea,  quae  riolles, 
videre,  tamen  id  cogitare  de- 
beres,  but  although  you  had 
already  made  up  your  mind  to 
stay  away  forever  rather  than 
see  what  you  would  rather  not 
see,  yet  you  ought  to  bear  this 
point  in  mind  (Cic.,  Fam.,  iv., 
7,4). 

Etiam  si  nobilitatum 
non  sit,  tamen  honestum  sit, 
quodque  vere  dlcimus,  etiam 
si  au  nullo  laudetur,  natura 
esse  laudabile,  even  though  it 
should  not  be  stamped  as  noble, 
yet  it  would  be  worthy  of  re- 
spect and  a  thing  which  we 
truly  call  praiseworthy  in  its 


CONCESSIVE   CLAUSES. 


279 


though  it  is  unpleasant,  I  am  nature,  even  though  no  one 
yet  glad  to  hear  (Cic.,  Att.,  in.,  should  praise  it  (Cic.,  Off.,  i., 
24,  2).  4,  14). 

479.  Concessive  clauses  are  also  introduced  by  licet,  ut, 
quamvls,  and  quamquam.     Of  these  :  — 

480.  (1.)  Clauses  with  licet  or  ut  take  the  subjunc- 
tive. 

(2.)  Clauses  with  quamquam  take  the  indicative  in 
classical  Latin,  the  subjunctive  later,  while  clauses  with 
quamvls  take  the  subjunctive  in  classical  Latin  and  the 
indicative  later.*  Thus  :  — 


INDICATIVE. 

jRomani,  quamquam  iti- 
nere  et  proelio  fessl  erant, 
tamen  Metello  Instructi  inten- 
flque  obviam  procedunt,  al- 
though  the  Romans  were 
weary  with  the  march  and  the 
battle,  yet  they  went  forth 
against  Metellus  drawn  up  in 
good  order  and  on  the  alert 
(Sall.,  lug.,  53,  5). 

Quamquam  in  utroque 
vestrum  summum  esse  inge- 
nium  studiumque  perspexl, 
tamen  haec,  quae  sunt  in  spe- 
tie  posita,  in  te,  Sulpici,  dl- 
vlna  sunt,  although  I  have 
seen  in  both  of  you  very  great 
ability  and  zeal,  yet  in  this 
matter  of  beauty  of  style  you, 
Sulpicius,  are  divine  (Cic.,  de 
Or.,  i.,  29,  131). 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Sed  omnia  licet  concur- 
rant,  Idus  Martiae  conso- 
lantur,  but  though  all  [hor- 
rors]  should  unite  against  me, 
yet  the  15th  of  March  is  a 
consolation  (Cic.,  Att.,  xiv., 
4,  2). 

Ut  enim  neminem  alium 
nisi  T.  Patinam  familiaris- 
simum  suum  rogasset,  sclre 
potuit,  for  even  though  he  had 
asked  no  one  but  his  dear 
friend  Titus  Patina,  he  might 
have  known  (Cic.,  Mil.,  17, 
46). 

Quamquam  enim  sintf 
in  quibusdam  mails,  tamen 
hoc  nomen  beatl  longe  et  late 
patet,  for  though  they  may  be 
in  some  misfortune,  yet  this 
word  Chappy"  is  one  of  far- 


*  In  very  late  Latin  licet  also  is  found  with  the  indicative. 

t  In  this  and  the  few  other  cases  in  which  Cicero  uses  the  subjunctive  in 
a  quamquam  clause,  the  subjunctive  is  potential,  and  not  influenced  by  the 
concessive  character  of  the  sentence.  (Cf.  the  translation.) 


280  SYNTAX. 

Quamvis    est    enim    om-  reaching   import  (Cic.,  Tusc., 

nis   hyperbole    ultra  finem,  v.,  30,  85). 

rion  tamen  esse    debet   ultra  Quamvls      sis     molestus, 

modum,  for   although   all  hy-  nunquam    te    esse    confitebor 

perbole     means     overstepping  malum,  for    although  you  are 

the  line,  yet  it  should  not  go  annoying,  I  will  never   admit 

beyond    all     bounds     (Quint.,  that  you  are  bad  (Cic.,  Tusc., 

viii.,  6,  73).  ii.,  25,  61). 

NOTE.  The  concessive  clauses  with  quamvls  and  ut  are  of  hortatory 
origin,  quamvls  meaning-  "however  much,"  and  uf,  "how;  "  licet  is  really 
an  impersonal  verb,  and  the  subjunctive  was  at  first  a  coordinate  potential 
subjunctive  (cf.  491)  ;  quamquam  introduces  regularly  something  granted 
to  be  a  fact,  and  therefore  naturally  has  the  indicative. 

a.  Quamvls,  in  its  earlier  meanings  "  however,"  "  as  much  as 
you  please,"  etc.,  is  used  to  modify  some  particular  adjective  or 
adverb,  and  then   has  no  effect  upon  the  mood  of  the  verb. 
Thus  :  — 

Quasi  vero  mihi  difficile  sit,  quamvis  multos  nominatim 
proferre,  just  as  if  it  would  be  hard  for  me  to  mention  by  name 
as  many  as  you  please  (Cic.,  Hose.  Am.,  16,  47)  ;  doctorum  est 
ista  consuetude  eaque  Graecorum,  ut  els  ponatur  de  quo  dispu- 
tent  quamvis  subito,  it  is  the  professional  philosophers,  and 
that,  too,  Greek  ones,  who  have  that  habit  of  letting  a  subject  be 
proposed  to  them  for  discussion  however  suddenly  (Cic.,  Am., 
5,  17). 

So,  quamvis  licet  Imectemur  Stoicos  metud  ne  soil  philoso- 
phl  sint,  for  though  we  attack  the  Stoics  as  much  as  you  please, 
I  fear  they  are  the  only  real  philosophers  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  iv., 
24,  53). 

b.  Quamquam  and  etsl,  often,  tametsi,  rarely,  are  used  with 
independent  sentences  to  add  a  sort  of  correction  to  what  has 
been  said,  as  is  done  in  English  by  "  and  yet."     Thus  :  — 

Quamquam  quid  opus  est  in  hoc  philosopJidrz,  and  yet, 
what  need  is  there  of  philosophizing  on  this  subject?  (Cic., 
Tusc.,  i.,  37,  89) ;  hdrum  duarum  condicionum  nunc  utram 
mails  vide ;  etsi  consilium,  quod  cepl,  rectum  esse  et  tiitum 


CLAUSES   OF   CONCESSION,    AND   OF   COMPARISON.      281 

scid,  now  see  which  of  these  two  propositions  you  prefer ;  and 
yet  the  plan  which  I  have  formed  I  know  is  sound  and  safe. 
(Ter.,  Heaut.,  327). 

c.  Etsi,  quamquam,  and  quamvis  are  used  rarely  in  classical 
writers,  but  very  commonly  in  Tacitus  and  the  later  authors 
(like  "although"  in  English),  with  participles,  etsl  and  quam- 
quam also  with  adjectives,  without  any  verb.  Thus :  — 

Qua  re  omni  ratwne  esse  interdiuperruin  pendum  ;  etsi  ali- 
qu5  accepto  detriments,  tamen  summa  exercitus  salva 
locum,  quern  petant,  capl  posse,  [that]  therefore  on  all  accounts 
they  must  break  through  by  daylight,  and  although  some  loss 
might  be  experienced,  yet  with  the  main  body  of  the  army  un- 
hurt, the  place  they  were  making  for  could  be  taken  (Caes.,  B.  C., 
i.,  67) ;  lorlcam  induit  linteam,  quamquam  hand  dissimu- 
lans  parum  adversus  tot  miicrones  profuturam,  he  [Galba]  put 
on  a  canvas  breastplate,  though  perfectly  well  aware  that  it 
would  be  of  little  use  against  so  many  sword  points  (Suet., 
Galba,  19)  ;  haec,  mlra  quamquam,  fidem  ex  eo  trahebant, 
these  things,  wonderful  though  they  were,  induced  belief  from 
the  fact  (Tac.,  An.,  vi.,  30)  ;  mene  non  primum  cum  Pompeid, 
quallcumque  consilio  sud,  delude  cum,  boms  esse,  quamvis 
causa  temere  instituta,  I  not  be,  in  the  first  place,  on  Pom- 
pey's  side  whatever  his  design,  and  afterwards  on  the  right  side, 
although  they  had  not  managed  their  course  with  discretion  ? 
(Cic.,  Att.,  ix.,  6,  4). 

For  Concessive  clauses  with  Relative  Pronouns,  see  500,  2,  6. 

"  "     Cum  "   510,  2. 

"    Clauses  of  Proviso  with  Dum,  Modo,  etc.,      "   504. 


Clauses  with  Particles  of  Comparison. 

481.  (1.)  Clauses  of  comparison  take  the  indicative 
when  the  comparison  is  simply  stated  as  a  fact. 

(2.)  They  take  the  subjunctive  when  the  comparison  is 
put  as  a  supposed  case.  Si  is  then  usually  added  to  the 
particle  of  comparison ;  as,  tamquam  si,  quasi^  ut  sl^  velut 
si,  ac  si.  Thus  :  — 


UNIVERSITY 

Of    «. W\V        ^ 


282 


SYNTAX. 


INDICATIVE. 

lllud  te  hortor,  ut,  tam- 
quam  poetae  bonl  solent,  sic 
tu  in  extrema  parte  muneris 
tul  dlligentissimus  sis,  this  I 
urge  upon  you:  just  as  good 
poets  are  in  the  habit  of  doing, 
so  do  you  exercise  especial 
care  in  the  last  part  of  your 
task  (Cic.,  Q.  Fr.,  i.,  1,  46). 

Quasi  poma  ex  arbori- 
bus,  cruda  si  sunt,  vix  evel- 
luntur,  si  mdtura  et  cocta, 
decidunt,  sic  vltam  adulescen- 
tibus  vis  aufert,  as  fruit  when 
unripe  is  torn  with  difficulty 
from  its  tree,  but  when  it  is 
fully  ripe  falls,  so  force  is  neces- 
sary to  take  away  life  from  the 
young  (Cic.,  Sen.,  19,  71). 

Est  ita,  ut  dlcitur,  it  is  as 
it  is  said  to  be. 

Haec  sicut  exposui,  ita 
gesta  sunt,  these  things  took 
place  as  I  have  set  forth  (Cic., 
Mil.,  11,  30). 

Ut  sementem  feceris,  ita 
metes,  as  thou  sowest,  so  shalt 
thou  reap  (Cic.,  de  Or.,  ii.,  65, 
261). 

Longe  alia  nobls  ac  tu 
scripseras  nuntiantur,  the 
accounts  told  me  are  far  other 
than  you  wrote  (Cic.,  Att.,  xi., 
10,  2). 

Pergratum  mihi  feceris, 
si  quemadmodum  soles 
de  ceteris  rebus  cum  ex  te 


SUBJUNCTI V  E . 

Verum  homines  corrupti 
superbia  ita  aetatem  agunt, 
quasi  vostros  horiores  con- 
temnant;  ita  hos  petunt, 
quasi  honeste  vixerint.  but 
men  have  become  spoiled  by 
arrogance  and  conduct  them- 
selves as  if  they  scorned  your 
offices,  but  sue  for  them  as  if 
they  lived  respectable  lives 
(Sail.,  lug.,  85,  19). 

Qul  quasi  sua  res  aut 
horios  agatur,  ita  dlligenter 
Sex.  Naevi  studw  et  cupiditati 
morem  gerunt,  who  devote 
themselves  to  accomplishing 
the  zealous  and  eager  desires 
of  Sextus  Naevius  with  as 
much  energy  as  if  their  own 
interests  or  honors  were  at 
stake  (Cic.,  Qiiine.,  2,  9). 

Tantus  patres  metus  de 
summa  rerum  cepit,  velut  si 
iam  ad  portas  hostis  esset,  as 
great  a  fear  for  the  govern- 
ment seized  upon  the  senators 
as  if  the  enemy  were  already 
at  the  gates  (Liv.,  xxi.,  16,  2). 

At  acciisat  C.  Cornell  fl- 
lius,  et  id  aeque  valere  debet, 
ac  si  pater  indicaret,  but 
the  son  of  Gaius  Cornelius  is 
the  accuser,  and  that  ought  to 
have  as  much  weight  as  if  the 
father  were  giving  testimony 
(Cic.,  SulL,  18,  51). 

Tamquam     clausa     sit 


CLAUSES   OF   COMPARISON,    AND   OF   PURPOSE.       283 

quaeritur,  sic  de  amicitia  dis-  Asia,  sic   nihil  perfertur  ad 

putaris  quid  sentias,   I  shall  nos,  we  fail  to  get  any  news  as 

be  very  much  obliged  to  you  if  completely   as    if    Asia    were 

you   tell   us   what    you   think  blockaded  (Cic.,  Fam.,  xii.,  9). 

about  friendship,  in  the  same  Ut   si   bond   animo    fecis- 

way  you   are  wont  to  discuss  sent   laudavit   consilium    eo- 

other    topics,    when    you    are  rum,    he    [Agesilaus]    praised 

asked  about  them  (Cic.,  Am.,  their   scheme,  just  as    if   they 

iv.,  16).  had    acted    with    good    inten- 
tions (Nep.,  Ages.,  6,  2). 

a.  In  subjunctive  clauses  of  comparison,  if  the  supposed  com- 
parison applies  to  the  present  (or  future),  the  primary  tenses 
are  used  ;  if  to  the  past,  the  secondary  tenses.  The  perfect  and 
pluperfect  indicate,  of  course,  completed  action.  Occasionally, 
however,  the  imperfect  is  used  referring  to  present  time,  when 
the  comparison  involves  something  impossible  or  very  unnat- 
ural, as  in  the  fourth  example  above. 

For  Comparative  Clauses  with  Quam  =  "  than,"  see  498,  and  516,  e. 

Clauses  of  Purpose  (Final  Glauses). 

482.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  PURPOSE  is  introduced  :  — 

(1.)  By  the  conjunctions  ut,  that,  and  ne,  that  not,  lest 
(occasionally  ut  ne).  To  connect  two  clauses  of  purpose 
neve  (neu)  is  used  for  "  and  not "  as  well  as  "or  not " 
"  nor."  Thus  :  — 

Esse  oportet  ut  vivas ;  non  vivere  ut  edas,  you  must  eat 
in  order  to  live,  not  live  in  order  to  eat  (Cornif.,  Heren.,  iv., 
28,  39)  ;  ne  qua  eius  adventus  procul  slgnificatio  fiat,  that  no 
indication  of  his  arrival  may  be  made  at  a  distance  (Caes.,  J5.  G., 
vi.,  29) ;  excitanda  est  diligentia,  ut  ne  quid  neglegenter 
agamus,  we  must  rouse  up  our  energy  so  as  to  do  nothing  care- 
lessly ;  ut  vetera  exempla  relinquam,  neve  eorum  aliquem 
qul  vivunt  nominem,  to  leave  examples  from  old  times  and 
yet  not  name  any  of  the  living  (Cic.,  Sest.,  47,  101). 

(2.)  By  a  relative  pronoun  or  adverb ;  as,  qul,  unde, 
etc.  Thus  :  — 

Ea  qui  c5nficeret  Gaium  Trebonium  legatum  relinquit, 


284  SYNTAX. 

he  leaves  his  lieutenant  Gaius  Trebonius  to  attend  to  these 
things  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  vii.,  11)  ;  scribebat  tamen  orationes  quas 
alii  dicerent,  yet  he  used  to  write  speeches  for  others  to  deliver 
(Cic.,  Brut.,  56,  206)  ;  homini  natura  ratwnem  dedit,  qua  re- 
gerentur  animi  adpetltus,  to  man  Nature  has  given  reason,  to 
govern  the  desires  of  the  mind  (cf.  Cic.,  N.  D.,  ii.,  12,  34)  ; 
quasi  iam  divinarem,  id  quod  accidit,  illo  exstlncto,  fore  unde 
dlscerem  neminem,  as  if  I  already  had  a  presentiment  of  what 
proved  to  be  the  case,  that  after  his  death  there  would  be 
nobody  from  whom  I  could  learn  (for  me  to  learn  from)  (Cic., 
Sen.,  4,  12)  ;  habebam  quo  confugerem,  I  had  a  refuge  to 
flee  to  (Cic.,  Fam.,  iv.,  6,  2)  ;  locum,  ubl  consistat  reperire 
rion  poterit,  he  will  not  be  able  to  find  a  place  in  which  to 
make  a  stand  (Cic.,  Qulnc.,  1,  5). 

NOTE.  Ut  represents  the  purpose  in  a  general  way  as  the  purpose  of  the 
action  indicated  by  the  main  verb  ;  the  relative  connects  the  purpose  par- 
ticularly with  some  word  in  the  main  clause.  Thus  :  — 

Cldvem  cepit  ut  idnuam  reduderet,  he  took  the  key  to  open  the  door. 

Cldvem  cepit  qua  idnuam  recluderet,  he  took  the  key  to  open  the  door 
with. 

(3.)  Especially  by  quo  (in  the  sense  of  ut  eo),  if  the 
purpose  clause  contains  a  comparative.*  Thus :  — 

Inr'ttant  ad  pugnandum,  quo  fiunt  acriSres,  they  goad 
them  on  to  battle,  to  make  them  the  fiercer  (Varr.)  ;  libertate 
usus  est,  quo  impunius  dicax  esset,  he  used  his  freedom 
to  bluster  the  more  safely  (Cic.,  Qmnc.,  3,  11). 

a.  When  the  clause  upon  which  the  purpose  clause  depends 
stands  first,  it  often  contains  some  word  or  phrase  like  ideo, 
idcirco,  eo  cdnsilio,  hoc  animo,  to  prepare  the  way  for  the  purpose 
clause ;  as  :  — 

Legibus  denique  idcirco  omnes  servlmus,  ut  Uberl  esse 
possimus,  to  the  laws,  in  short,  we  are  all  slaves,  but  only  on 
this  account,  namely,  to  secure  the  possibility  of  freedom  (Cic., 
Clu.,  53,  146)  ;  eo  ad  te  animS  venimm,  ut  de  re  publicd 

*  Quo  is  very  rarely  used  if  there  is  no  comparative,  and,  on  the  other 
hand,  ut  is  occasionally  used  where  there  is  a  comparative. 


CLAUSES   OF   PURPOSE.  285 

esset  silentium,  with  this  purpose  we  have  come  to  you,  that 
we  might  cease  thinking  and  talking  about  the  government  (Cic., 
Brut.,  3,  11). 

b.  When  the  purpose  belongs  to  the  present  (or  future)  the 
present  subjunctive  is  used  ;  when  it  belongs  to  the  past,  the 
imperfect  is  used.     The  perfect  and  pluperfect  are  in  the  nature 
of  the  case  uncommon,  representing  a  purpose  as  completed  in 
the  present  or  past  respectively. 

c.  But  the  clause  of  purpose  sometimes  depends  upon  an  idea 
of  saying  implied,  instead  of  upon  the  main  verb  of  the  sentence 
expressed.     Thus  :  — 

Sed  ut  hie,  qui  intervenit,  me  intuens,  ne  Ignoret,  quae 
res  agatur,  de  natura  agebamus  deorum,  but  that  our  friend 
who  has  just  come  in  —  and  he  glanced  at  me  —  may  not  be  in 
the  dark  as  to  the  subject  of  our  discussion,  we  were  discussing 
the  divine  nature  (Cic.,  N.  D.,  i.,  7, 17).  Ne  Ignoret  indicates  the 
purpose  of  making  the  remark,  not  the  purpose  of  the  discus- 
sion. 

d.  Of  similar  character  is  the  use  of  nedum  introducing  a 
subjunctive  clause  where  we  say  "  not  to  mention,"  "  still  less," 
etc.     Thus  :  — 

Satrapa  si  siet  amator  numquam  sufferre  eitis  sumptus 
queat,  nedum  tu  possis,  if  her  lover  were  a  governor  he  could 
never  stand  her  extravagance,  still  less  can  you  (Ter.,  Heaut., 
454). 

NOTE.  Ut,  as  well  as  qui,  u&f,  etc. ,  is  in  origin  a  relative,  so  that  all 
these  clauses  of  purpose  are  really  of  the  same  nature.  Their  develop- 
ment may  be  illustrated  thus :  — 

He  sends  a  boy ;  he  will  or  would  say,  (or)  let  him  say. 

He  sends  a  boy  who  will  say,  (or)  who  is  to  say. 

He  sends  a  boy,  that  he  may  say,  (or)  to  say. 

The  English  exhibits  the  coordinate  construction  beside  the  subordinate 
in  the  expressions  "  come  and  see  me,"  "come  to  see  me." 

For  other  constructions  of  purpose,  see  as  follows :  — 

Gerunds  and  Gerundives  :  551,  and  552,  2. 

Future  Participle  (rare) :   545,  a. 

Supine  (with  verbs  of  motion) :  554,  2. 

(Poetical)  Infinitive  :   536. 


286  SYNTAX. 

Clauses  of  Result  (Consecutive  Clauses). 

483.  The  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF  RESULT  is  introduced :  — 
(1.)  By  ut,  that,  ut  lion,  that  not.     Thus :  — 
Non  is  es,  Catilina,  ut  te  pudor  umquam  a  turpitudlne 
revocarit,  you  are  not  such  a  person,  Catiline,  that  shame  has 
ever  kept  you  from  a  base  deed  (cf.  Cic.,  Cat.,  i.,  9,  22)  ;  multls 
gravibusque  volneribus  confectus,  ut   iam  se   sustinere  non 
posset,  worn  out  with  many  serious  wounds,  so  that  now  he 
could  no  longer  hold  himself  up  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  ii.,  25). 

(2.)  By  a  relative  pronoun  or  adverb,  qui,  etc. 
Thus  :  — 

Nemo  est  tarn  senex,  qui  se  annum  non  putet  posse  vivere, 
no  one  is  so  old  that  he  does  not  think  he  can  live  a  year  (Cic., 
Sen.,  7,  24) ;  quis  tarn  fuit  illo  tempore  ferreus,  qui  non  illo- 
rum  aetdte]  nobilitdte,  miserid  commoveretur,  who  was  so 
iron-hearted  then,  that  he  was  not  influenced  by  their  age,  their 
high  birth,  and  their  pitiable  condition?  (Cic.,  Verr.,  v.,46, 12l). 

(3.)  Especially  by  qmn  (equivalent  to  the  nominatives 
qui,  quae,  quod,  etc.,  with  non),  when  the  main  clause 
contains  or  implies  a  negative.  Thus  :  — 

Nidlast  tain  facilis  res,  quin  difficilis  siet,  qi^om  invitus 
facias,  nothing  is  so  easy  that  it  is  not  hard  when  you  do  it 
against  your  will  (Ter.,  Heaut.,  805)  ;  numquam  accedo,  quin 
abs  te  abeam  doctior,  I  never  come  to  you  without  going  away 
richer  in  knowledge. 

a.  The  clause  of  result  is  generally  foreshadowed  in  the  main 
clause  by  some  word  like  ita,  sic,  tarn,  is,  talis,  tantus,  adeo. 
(Cf.  the  examples.) 

b.  When  clauses  which  seem  to  be  result  clauses  have  ne  or 
ut  ne,  it  is  because  the  thing  said  is  looked  at  rather  as  an 
intended  effect  (purpose)  than  as  a  result  (accomplished  effect). 
Thus  :  — 

Utroque  tempore  ita  me  gessi  ne  tibi  pudort,  ne  regno  tuo, 
ne  genii  Macedonum  essem,  on  both  occasions  I  so  conducted 


CLAUSES    OF   RESULT. 

myself  as  not  to  bring  discredit  upon  you  or  your  kingdom,  or 
upon  the  Macedonians  as  a  people  [i.  e.,  it  was  my  aim  not  to, 
etc.]  (Liv.,  xl.,  15,  6). 

NOTE.  As  in  the  case  of  purpose  clauses,  the  relative  clause  of  result 
is  an  earlier  development  than  the  ut  clause.  This  development  began  as 
an  independent  apodosis  with  an  implied  protasis  in  some  such  fashion  as 
this:  — 

This  is  a  very  simple  thing :  you  would  easily  see  it. 

This  thing  is  so  simple  :  it  is  one  which  you  would  easily  see. 

This  thing  is  so  simple  that  you  would  easily  see  it. 

This  thing  is  so  simple  that  it  causes  no  trouble.* 

Starting  thus  with  the  notion  of  indeterminate  futurity  inherent  in  the 
subjunctive,  the  result  clause  tends  to  pass  from  the  supposed  case  to  an 
actual  case.  In  this  process  the  subjunctive  loses  more  and  more  of  its 
modality,  and  gains  correspondingly  in  definiteness  of  tense,  so  that :  — 

c.  In  pure  result  clauses,  unlike  the  other  dependent  clauses 
thus  far  treated,  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive  seem  to  acquire 
the  same  distinctness  of  temporal  quality  which  the  indicative 
has.  This  is  especially  true  of  the  perfect  subjunctive,  as  can 
be  seen  in  examples  like  the  following  :  — 

Expulsus  regno  tandem  aliquando,  Mithridates  tantum 
tamen  consilid  atque  auctoritate  valuit  ut  se  rege  Armenia- 
rum  adiuncto  novls  opibus  copiisque  renovarit,  driven  at 
last  out  of  his  kingdom,  Mithridates  was  still  so  effective  with 
his  schemes  and  influence  that  he  renewed  his  means  and 
troops  by  winning  the  king  of  the  Armenians  as  an  ally  (Cic., 
Miir.,  15,  33). 

NOTE  1.  How  far  the  Romans  were  conscious  of  a  substitution  of  tense 
force  for  mood  force  in  such  subjunctives  it  is  perhaps  impossible  to  tell. 
It  may  be  that  the  perfect,  through  denoting  completed  action,  differs  in 
clauses  of  result  from  the  imperfect  in  the  same  way  that  the  English 
expressions  "so  that  he  did"  and  "so  as  to  do"  differ.  Compare  with 
the  example  just  given  the  following  from  the  same  oration  :  — 

Qul  rex,  sibt  aliquot  annis  sumptls  ad  confirmandds  rationes  et  copids 
belli,  tantum  spe  conatuque  valuit,  ut  se  Oceanum  cum  Ponto  coniuncturum 
putaret,  and  this  king,  having  taken  several  years  to  mature  his  plans 

*  Cf.  J.  B.  Greenough's  essay  on  The  Latin  Subjunctive,  pp.  17  ff.,  and 
W.  G.  Hale's  "Sequence  of  Tenses  in  Latin,"  American  Journal  of  Phi- 
lology, viii.,  1,  pp.  49  ff. 


288  SYNTAX. 

and  strengthen  his  forces,  found  himself  so  powerful,  in  his  hopes  and 
ambitions,  as  to  fancy  that  he  was  going  to  spread  his  sway  from  the 
Black  Sea  to  the  ocean  (Cic.,  Mur.,  15,  32). 

In  using  the  imperfect,  the  writer  seems  to  he  thinking  more  of  the  fact 
(expressed  by  the  main  verb)  which  produces  the  result,  while  the  perfect 
calls  attention  rather  to  the  result  itself. 

NOTE  2.  This  difference  between  the  perfect  and  the  imperfect  sub- 
junctive can  perhaps  be  more  plainly  seen  by  comparing  a  clause  of  result 
with  a  clause  of  purpose.  Thus :  — 

RESULT.  Inventus  est  scrlba  quidam  qui  cornicum  oculns  conflxerit, 
there  was  found  a  certain  clerk  who  bearded  the  lion  (lit.,  pierced  the 
eyes  of  the  crows)  (Cic.,  Mur.,  11,  25). 

PURPOSE.  Reperti  sunt  duo  equites  Romani  qui  te  istd  curd  liberarent, 
there  were  found  two  Roman  knights  to  free  you  from  that  anxiety  (Cic. , 
Cat.,  i.,  4,  9). 

The  purpose  is  something  looked  forward  to  in  the  indefinite  future, 
and  therefore  has  no  reference  to  a  particular  time  other  than  the  time  of 
the  main  verb ;  the  result  is  something  which  has  occurred  at  a  definite 
past  time,  and  therefore,  besides  its  reference  to  its  main  verb,  involves, 
like  the  indicative,  a  reference  also  to  the  time  the  thing  is  said.* 

Substantive  Clauses  with  Ut.  Ne,  Quin,  Quominus. 

484.  After    the   analogy   of    final    and    consecutive 
clauses,   subjunctive  clauses  introduced  by  ut    (and    ut 
nori),  lie  (neve  or  neu,  and  ut  ne),  qum,  and  quominus, 
were  used  as  the  subject  or  object  of  a  variety  of  verbs, 
or  in  apposition  to  some  word  governed  by  them. 

485.  Clauses  analogous  to  final  clauses  are  thus  used 
depending  upon  several  classes  of  verbs  which  denote  an 
action  directed  to  the  future.     Such  clauses  are  called 

SUBSTANTIVE  OF  OBJECT  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE.      Thus  :  — 

486.  With  verbs  meaning  to  WISH,  ASK,  BESEECH,  DE- 
MAND, DETERMINE,  DECREE,  ALLOW,  etc.  ;   as  I  — 

Phaetkon  optavit  ut  in  currum  patris  tolleretur,  Phae- 
thon  wanted  to  be  taken  up  into  his  father's  chariot  (Cic.,  Off., 

*  This  difference  exists,  of  course,  in  the  nature  of  the  case  itself,  and 
not  in  the  form  of  the  expression.  In  English  we  mark  the  difference  by 
the  mood  of  the  verb ;  the  Romans  failed  to  do  so,  but  it  does  not  follow 
that  they  did  not  feel  the  difference. 


SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE.       289 

iii.,  25,  94)  ;  Verves  rogat  et  orat  Dolabellam,  ut  ad  Nero- 
nem  proficiscatur,  Verres  asks  and  begs  Dolabella  to  visit  Nero 
(Cic.,  Verr.,  i.,  29,  72)  ;  mllites  poscunt  pugnam,  postulant, 
ut  slgnum  daretur,  the  soldiers  call  for  battle,  and  de- 
mand that  the  signal  be  given  (Liv.,  ii.,  45,  6)  ;  Galll  sta- 
tuunt,  ut  decem  milia  hominum  in  oppidum  mittantur,  the 
Gauls  determine  that  ten  thousand  men  be  sent  into  the  town 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  vii.,  21)  ;  decrevit  senatus,  ut  L.  Oplmius  vi- 
deret,  rie  quid  res  publica  detriment?,  caperet,  the  senate  de- 
creed that  Lucius  Opimius  should  see  to  it  that  the  state  suffered 
no  harm  (Cic.,  Cat.,  i.,  2, 4)  ;  consuli  permlssum  est,  ut  duds 
legiones  scriberet  novas,  the  consul  was  authorized  to  enroll 
two  new  legions  (Lav.,  xxxv.,  20,  4). 

487.  With  verbs  meaning  to  PROPOSE,  ADVISE,  WARN, 

URGE,  PERSUADE,  DIRECT,  COMMAND,  COMPEL,  etc.  ;    as  : 

\_Nescls~]  te  autem  ipsum  ad  populum  tulisse,  ut  quintus 
praeterea  dies  Caesarl  tribueretur,  and  have  you  forgotten 
that  you  yourself  proposed  to  the  people  that  a  fifth  day  be- 
sides should  be  assigned  to  Caesar  ?  (Cic.,  Phil.,  ii.,  43,  110)  ; 
postea  me,  ut  sibi  essem  legatus,  rion  solum  suasit,  verum 
etiam  rogavit,  afterwards  he  not  only  advised,  but  even  re- 
quested me  to  be  his  lieutenant  (Cic.,  Prov.  Cons.,  17,  42)  ; 
monet,  ut  in  reliquum  tempus  omnes  suspwiones  vitet,  he 
warns  him,  for  the  future,  to  avoid  all  suspicious  conduct  (Caes., 
B.  Gr.,  i.,  20)  ;  Caninms  noster  me  tuis  verbis  admonuit,  ut 
scriberem  ad  te,  our  friend  Caninius  has  suggested  to  me  on 
your  behalf  that  I  write  to  you  (Cic.,  Fam.,  ix.,  6,  l)  ;  Caesar 
mllites  cohortatus  est,  utl  suae  prlstinae  virtutis  memoriam 
retinerent  neu  perturbarentur  animo,  Caesar  urged  the 
soldiers  to  hold  fast  to  the  remembrance  of  their  old-time  valor, 
and  not  to  be  troubled  in  their  minds  ;  huic  magnls  praemils 
pollicitationibusque  persuadet,  uti  ad  hostes  transeat,  he 
persuades  this  man  by  promise  of  great  rewards  to  cross  over  to 
the  enemy's  lines  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  iii.,  18)  ;  servls  imperat,  ut 
se  ipsum  neglegant,  flliam  defendant,  he  orders  his  slaves 
not  to  pay  any  attention  to  him,  but  to  protect  his  daughter 


290  SYNTAX. 

(Cic.,  Verr.,  i.,  26,  67)  ;  teriemus  enim  memoria  Q.  Catulum 
esse  coactnm,  ut  vita  se  ipse  privaret,  for  we  remember 
that  Quintus  Catulus  was  forced  to  take  his  own  life  (Cic.,  de 
Or.,  iii.,  3,  9). 

488.  Substantive  clauses  of  purpose  are  further  used 
with  verbs  meaning  to  ATTEND  TO,  LOOK  OUT  FOE,  STRIVE, 
TRY,  etc. ;  as  :  — 

Cura  ut  valeds,  see  that  you  keep  well  (Cic.,  Fam.,  vii.,  5, 
3)  ;  videamus,  ut,  quidquid  acciderit,  fortiter  feramus,  let 
us  see  to  it  that  we  bear  bravely  whatever  happens ;  qul  sta- 
dium currit,  eniti  debet,  ut  vincat,  he  who  runs  a  race 
ought  to  try  his  best  to  win  (Cic.,  Off.,  iii.,  10,  42). 

489.  Many  of  these  verbs  are  also  used  with  an  infini- 
tive clause.     Thus :  — 

(1.)  Void,  ndld,  maid,  cupid,  studed,  always  ;  statud,  cdn- 
stitud,  decernd,  generally,  take  an  infinitive  (not  a  subjunctive 
clause)  when  there  is  no  change  of  subject.  Thus  :  — 

Si  accelerare  volent,  ad  vesperam  cdnsequentur,  if  they 
are  willing  to  hurry  they  will  overtake  him  by  evening  (Cic., 
Cat.,  ii.,  4,  6)  ;  simul  illdrum  C'llamitatern  commeinorando 
augere  n5l5,  at  the  same  time  I  do  not  wish  to  increase  the 
misfortune  of  these  people  by  dwelling  upon  it  (Cic..  Ver.  Ac.,  i., 
14)  ;  incomtnoda  sua  nostrls  committere  legibus  et  iudiciis 
quam  dolorl  suo  permittere  maluerunt,  they  preferred  to 
leave  their  injuries  to  the  protection  of  our  laws  and  courts  rather 
than  base  action  upon  their  own  distress  (Cic.,  Verr.,  i.,  32,  82)  ; 
statuerunt  id  secum  in  Syriam  reportare,  they  determined 
to  take  that  back  with  them  to  Syria  (Cic.,  Verr.,  iv.,  28,  64). 

(2.)  Void,  twlo,  maid,  cupio,  have  often  also  the  infinitive 
even  when  the  subject  changes.  Thus  :  — 

An  omriis  tu  istos  vincere  volebas,  qul  nunc  tu  ut  vin- 
cas  tanto  opere  laborant,  or  did  you  want  to  have  all  these  gen- 
tlemen win  who  are  now  struggling  so  hard  to  have  you  win  ? 
(Cic.,  Qulnct.,  21,  69)  ;  tu  Syracusan5s  diem  festum  Mar- 
cellls  impertlre  noluisti,  you  were  unwilling  to  have  the 
people  of  Syracuse  celebrate  a  holiday  in  honor  of  the  Marcelli 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES   OF   PURPOSE.  291 

(Cic.,  Verr.,  ii.,  21,  51)  ;  rem  talem  per  olios  citius  quam  per 
se  tardius  confici  malebat,  he  preferred  to  have  a  matter  of 
this  kind  carried  out  quickly  by  others  rather  than  slowly  by 
himself  (Cic.,  Sest.,  32,  70). 

(3.)  Sirio  always  (except  in  the  imperative),  smdpatior  gen- 
erally, take  the  infinitive. 

(4.)  lubed  and  veto  regularly  take  the  infinitive  ;  so  also  im- 
pero  and  postulo  when  the  verb  dependent  upon  them  is  passive 
or  deponent ;  as : — 

Caesar  quinque  cohortes  de  media  node  proficisci  impe- 
rat,  Caesar  orders  five  cohorts  to  set  out  about  midnight. 

490.  Several  of  these  verbs  take  the  subjunctive  if 
they  imply  a  COMMAND  or  REQUEST,  the  infinitive  if  they 
merely  introduce  a  STATEMENT.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)  Persuaded,  moneo,  concedo,  etc.,  with  the  subjunctive, 
mean  *'  persuade,  warn,  allow  one  to  do  a  thing  ;  "  with  the  in- 
finitive, "  persuade,  warn,  grant  one  that  a  thing  is  so  and  so." 

(2.)  Words  like  dicer  e,  scribere,  respondere,  nuntiare,  with 
the  subjunctive,  mean  "  tell,  write,  etc.,  one  to  do  so  and  so  ;  " 
as  :  — 

Dicam  tuls,  ut  librum  meum  descrlbant  ad  teque  mlt- 
tant,  I  will  tell  your  people  to  make  a  copy  of  my  book,  and 
send  it  to  you  (Cic.,  Fam.,  xii.,  17,  2). 

491.  Sometimes   the  subjunctive  has  no  introductory 
ut.     Thus :  — 

Visne  igitur  hoc  primum  videamus,  do  you  wish  then  that 
we  should  look  at  this  point  first  ?  malo  te  sapiens  hostis  me- 
tuat,  quam  stulti  ewes  laudent,  I  would  rather  have  you  feared 
by  a  wise  enemy  than  praised  by  foolish  fellow-countrymen  ;  a  te 
peto,  me  absentem  defendas,  I  beg  of  you  to  defend  me  in 
my  absence ;  Caesar  Commid  imperat  quas  possit  adeat 
clvitates,  Caesar  orders  Commius  to  visit  such  states  as  he  can ; 
hane  si  qui  partem  putabit  esse  orationis,  sequatur  licebit, 
if  any  one  thinks  this  is  a  part  of  oratory,  he  may  follow  [Her- 
magoras]  (Cic.,  Inven.,  i.,  51,  97). 


292  SYNTAX. 

So  with  velim,  vellem,  malim,  etc.,  used  as  a  circumlocution 
to  express  a  wish.  (See  473,  c.) 

NOTE.  It  is  incorrect  to  say  that  in  these  cases  an  ut  is  omitted.  They 
are  survivals  of  the  old  coordinate  construction  before  the  ut  construction 
was  developed,  and  the  apparently  dependent  subjunctive  is  really  an  inde- 
pendent hortatory  or  potential  subjunctive. 

492.  After  verbs  and  expressions  which  denote  FEAR, 
ANXIETY,  etc.,  the  subjunctive  with  rie  expresses  a  fear 
that  something  will  or  may  happen ;  with  tie  non  (or  ut), 
a  fear  that  something  will  or  may  not  happen  (see  note 
below).  Thus :  — 

Vereor,  ne,  dum  minuere  velim  labdrem,  augeam,  I  am 
afraid  that,  while  wishing  to  lessen  the  labor,  I  shall  increase 
it  (Cic.,  Leg.,  i.,  4,  12) ;  vldit  periculum  esse,  ne  exutum 
impedimentls  exercitum  nequlquam  incolumem  traduxisset, 
he  saw  there  was  danger  of  his  having  taken  the  army  safely 
across  to  no  purpose  if  stripped  of  its  baggage  (Lav.,  ix.,  18)  ; 
non  qu5  verear,  ne  tua  virtus  oplnidnt  hominum  non  re- 
spondeat,  not  that  I  am  afraid  that  your  merits  will  not  fulfill 
men's  expectations  (Cic.,  fain.,  ii.,  5,  2)  ;  veremur,  ne  forte 
non  alvorum  utilitatibus  sed  propriae  laudl  servlsse  videa- 
mur,  I  am  afraid  that  I  may,  perhaps,  seem  to  have  been  work- 
ing not  for  the  interests  of  others,  but  for  my  own  glory ;  rem 
frumentariam,  ut  satis  commode  supportari  posset,  timere 
[se]  dicebant,  they  said  they  were  afraid  that  provisions  could 
not  be  conveyed  comfortably  and  conveniently  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i., 
39). 

a.  Ut,  rather  than  ne  ndn,  is  used  by  the  comic  poets,  espe- 
cially with  timed,  metud,  and  paved,  and  by  Pacuvius  and  Ter- 
ence with  vereor.     Cicero  also  prefers  ut  after  vereor  and  timed, 
and  Caesar  uses  it  after  timed,  as  in  the  last  example.     Ne  non 
is  rare  in  the  comic  writers,  and  disappears  wholly  after  Cice- 
ro's time. 

b.  Vereor,  and  less  commonly  other  verbs  of  fearing,  when 
they  mean  "  afraid  to  do,"  take  an  infinitive ;  as  :  — 

Ah  f  vereor  cdram  in  ds  te  laudare  amplius,  oh,  I  am 


SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES  OF  PURPOSE.       293 

afraid  to  praise  you  any  more  thus  to  your  face    (Ter.,  Ad., 
269). 

c.  The  verb  of  fearing  or  caution  is  sometimes  omitted  in 
lively  address  or  conversation,  the  subjunctive  clause  thus  stand- 
ing alone ;  as  :  — 

Ne  nimium  modo  .  .  .  tuos  iste  animus  aequos  subvortat, 
only  [take  care]  lest  that  easy-going  disposition  of  yours  upset 
us  too  completely  (Ter.,  Ad.,  835). 

NOTE.  Clauses  of  fearing  are  really  developments  from  the  hortatory 
or  the  optative  use  of  the  subjunctive,  and  this  origin  explains  the  apparent 
contradiction  in  the  use  of  ut  to  express  ' '  that  not. ' '  Thus :  — 

metuo;  ne  id  fiat !   =   metud  ne  id  flat. 
I  am  afraid;    <  ^      >  it  not  happen    "    I  am  afraid  it  will  happen. 

metuo;  neidnonflat!   =   metuo  ne  id  non  flat. 

metuo;  ut  id  flat  I    "    metuo  ut  id  flat. 
let     )    (  it  not  fail  to  happen  )  "   I  am  afraid  it  will  not 
may  )    {  it  happen  )  happen. 


I  am  afraid  ; 


493.  Substantive  clauses  of  purpose  often  passing  into 
result  are  used  :  — 

(1.)  With  ne  (ut  ne)  or  without  a  particle,  after  words 
meaning  to  guard  against  or  forbid.  Thus  :  — 

Cavendum  est,  ne  extra  modum  prodeas,  you  must 
guard  against  overstepping  the  limit  (Cic.,  Off.)  i.,  39,  140)  ; 
neque  enim  est  inter  dictum  out  a  rerum  natura  aut  a 
lege  aliqua  atque  more,  ut  singulis  hominibus  ne  amplius 
quam  singulas  artes  nosse  liceat,  for  neither  by  the  constitu- 
tion of  the  universe,  nor  by  any  statute  or  convention,  is  it  for- 
bidden that  one  man  shall  know  more  than  one  subject  (Cic., 
de  Or.,  i.,  50,  215). 

a.  Cavere  means  properly  "  look  out  for,"  "  provide  for." 
Therefore  with  ne  it  means  "  to  guard  against ;  "  and  with  ut 
"  to  take  care  that."  Cave  without  a  particle  is  used  as  a  cir- 
cumlocution for  forbidding.  Thus  :  — 

Cave  festines,  do  not  hasten  ;  cave  f axis,  don't  do  it. 

(2.)  With  ne  or  quominus  (sometimes  also  qum,  if  the 


294  SYNTAX. 

main  clause  contains  or  implies  a  negative),  after  verbs 
meaning  to  OPPOSE,  REFUSE,  HINDER,  etc.     Thus :  — 

Pliira  ne  scribam,  dolore  impedior,  I  am  prevented  by 
grief  from  writing  more  ;  Atticus,  ne  qua  sibi  statua  ponere- 
tur,  restitit,  Atticus  opposed  having  a  statue  set  up  to  him 
anywhere  ;  elsdem  de  causls  .  .  .  quominus  dimicare  vellet, 
movebatur,  by  the  same  reasons  he  was  influenced  against 
wishing  to  fight  (Caes.,  B.  C.,  i.,  82)  ;  Epaminondas  non  recu- 
savit quominus  legis  poenam  subiret,  Epaminondas  did  not 
refuse  to  suffer  the  penalty  of  the  law  (Nep.,  Epam.,  viii.,  2)  ; 
Regulus  sententiam  ne  diceret  recusavit,  Regulus  refused  to 
give  an  opinion  (Cic.,  Off.,  iii.,  27,  100)  ;  rion  possumus,  quin 
alii  a  nobls  dissentiant  recusare,  we  cannot  object  to  others 
disagreeing  with  us  (Cic.,  Acad.,  ii.,  3,  7). 

a.  Recusare  in  affirmative  clauses  always  takes  ne  after  it ; 
in  negative  clauses  it  may  be  followed  by  quin,  quominus,  or 
the  infinitive. 

Illud  recusavit,  ne  id  a  se  fieri  pSstularent.  quod  adver- 
sus  ius  hospitl  esset,  he  would  not  let  them  demand  that  a  thing 
should  be  done  by  him  which  was  against  the  law  of  hospitality 
(Nep.,  xxiii.,  12,  3)  ;  non  recusabo,  quominus  omnes  mea 
legant,  I  will  not  object  to  everybody  reading  my  words  (Cic., 
Fin.,  i.,  3,  7)  ;  frater  meus  ad  omnia  perlcula  prlnceps  esse 
non  recusabat,  my  brother  has  no  reluctance  to  taking  the 
lead  in  facing  all  dangers. 

b.  Impedlre  and  deterrere  sometimes,  and  prohibere  more 
commonly,  take  the  infinitive.     Thus  :  — 

Caesar  igries  in  castris  fieri  prohibuit,  Caesar  forbade  fires 
being  made  in  the  camp  (Caes.,  B.  C.,  iii.,  30,  5)  ;  quid  est, 
quod  me  impediat  ea,  quae  mihi  probabilia  videantvr  sequi, 
what  is  there  to  hinder  me  from  adopting  the  views  which  seem 
to  me  probable  ?  (Cic.,  Off.,  ii.  2,  8). 

494.  Substantive  clauses  after  the  analogy  of  CLAUSES 
OF  RESULT  are  chiefly  used  :  — 

a.  With  impersonal  verbs  like  fit,  accidit,  contingti,  evenit, 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES    OP   RESULT.  295 

est,  as  a  circumlocution  to  express  the  occurrence  or  existence 
of  something.     Thus  :  — 

Accidit  ut  una  nocte  omnes  hermae  Athenis  deicerentur, 
it  came  to  pass  that  in  one  night  all  the  "  hermae  "  *  at  Athens 
were  thrown  down  ;  persaepe  evenit,  ut  utilitas  cum  honestate 
certet,  it  is  often  the  case  that  what  is  expedient  is  at  variance 
with  what  is  right  (Cic.,  Part.  Or.,  25,  89)  ;  quando  fuit  ut 
quod  licet  non  liceret,  when  was  it  true  that  the  lawful  was 
not  lawful  ? 

495.  After    certain    kinds    of   verbs    the    substantive 
clause  has  a  final  or  a  consecutive  character,  according  as 
the  given  case  is  regarded  as  something  intended  or  as 
something  accomplished  or  in  process  of  accomplishment. 
Thus  :  — 

496.  With  verbs  meaning  to  CAUSE,  ACCOMPLISH,  OB- 
TAIN, etc. ;  as  :  — 

Hamilcar  effecit  ut  imperator  in  Hispaniam  mitteretur, 
Hamilcar  brought  it  about  that  he  should  be  sent  into  Spain  as 
commander  (0000,00,00).  (FINAL.) 

Impetrabis  a  Caesare,  ut  tibi  abesse  liceat,  you  will  get 
from  Caesar  permission  to  be  away  (Cic.,  Att.,  ix.,  2,  A  1). 
(CONSECUTIVE.) 

Commeatus  ab  Remis  reliqmsque  clvitatibus  ut  sine  peri- 
culo  ad  eum  portari  possent,  efficiebat,  [this  thing]  made  it 
possible  for  supplies  to  be  brought  to  him  from  the  Remi  and 
the  other  states  without  danger  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  ii.,  5).  (FiNAL.) 

497.  So  with  impersonal  verbs  like  efficitur,  sequiturrf 
restat^  relinquitur,   and    expressions  like  proximum  est, 
mos  est,  ius  est.     Thus  :  — 

Restat,  ut  de  imperatore  ad  id  belhim  deligendo  .  .  .  dicen- 
dum  esse  videatur,  it  seems  necessary  for  me  in  conclusion  to 

*  That  is,  images  of  Hermes  with  only  the  upper  half  of  the  body  de- 
lineated, the  lower  half  being1  simply  squared  off  into  a  column  of  support. 

t  Efficitur  and  sequitur  may  also  take  an  infinitive  ;  as  :  ex  quo  illud 
efficitur,  qul  ben'e  cenent,  omnes  libenter  ceuare,  thence  follows  that  all 
who  dine  well  enjoy  dining. 


296  SYNTAX. 

speak  about  the  choice  of  a  commander  for  this  war  (Cic.,  Leg. 
Man.,  10,  27).  (CONSECUTIVE.) 

Proximum  est,  ut  doceam  deorum  providentia  mundum 
administrdrl,  the  next  thing  is  for  me  to  show  that  the  universe  is 
managed  by  divine  providence  (Cic.,  N.  D.,  ii.,  29,  73).  (FiNAL.) 

Ariovistus  respondit  ius  esse  belli,  ut  qul  vlcissent  els  quos 
vlcissent  quemadmodum  vellent  imperarent,  Ariovistus  an- 
swered that  it  was  the  right  of  war  for  the  conqueror  to  lay  such 
commands  upon  the  vanquished  as  he  wishes  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i., 
36).  (FINAL.) 

498.  So  after  comparatives  with  quam,  with  or  without 
nt,  the  subjunctive   has  sometimes  a  final,   sometimes  a 
consecutive,  nature.     Thus  :  — 

Isocrates  maiore  mihi  ingcnw  videtur  esse  quam  ut  cum 
Lyswb  comparetur,  Isocrates  seems  to  me  to  have  too  great 
ability  to  be  compared  with  Lysias.  (FINAL.) 

Qul  perpessus  est  omnia  potius  quam  conscws  delendae 
tyrannidis  indicaret,  who  suffered  everything  rather  than  dis- 
close the  accomplices  of  the  plot  to  overthrow  the  tyranny  (Cic., 
Tusc.,  ii.,  22,  52).  (CONSECUTIVE.) 

499.  To  the  foregoing  clauses  may  be  added  the  clauses 
with  qmn,  depending  on  a  clause  which  contains  or  implies 
negation.     Thus :  — 

Nemo  fuit  mUitum  quin  volneraretur,  there  was  no  one 
of  the  soldiers  but  was  wounded.  (CONSECUTIVE.) 

Quis  est,  quin  cernat,  quanta  vis  sit  in  sensibus,  who  does 
not  see  how  much  power  there  is  in  the  senses  ?  (CONSECUTIVE.) 

Aegre  sunt  retentl  mllites  quin  oppidum  irrumperent, 
the  soldiers  were  with  difficulty  restrained  from  bursting  into  the 
town  (Caes.,  B.  C.,  ii.,  13).  (CONSECUTIVE.) 

Cicero  nihil  praetermlsit,  quin  Pompeium  a  Caesaris  con- 
iunctwne  avocaret,  Cicero  neglected  no  means  of  trying  to  get 
Pompey  away  from  alliance  with  Caesar.  ( FINAL.) 

NOTE.  It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  first  two  examples  quin  retains  more 
of  its  original  force  as  a  relative,  and  in  the  last  two  has  become  more 
thoroughly  a  conjunction. 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES.  297 

a.  Clauses  with  quln  are  especially  common  after  non  possum, 
facere  non  possum,  rion  dubito,  rion  dubium  est,  etc.    Thus  :  — 

Facer  e  non  possum  quln  cottldie  ad  te  mitt  am  litter  as,  I 
cannot  help  sending  you  a  letter  every  day.  (FiNAL.) 

Quis  dubitet,  quln  in  virtute  dlvitiae  sint,  who  can  doubt 
that  there  are  riches  in  virtue  ?  (CONSECUTIVE.) 

Non  videbatur  esse  dubium,  quln  Caesar  venturus  esset, 
there  seemed  to  be  no  doubt  that  Caesar  would  come.  (CONSE- 
CUTIVE.) 

b.  In  the  meaning  "  I  do  not  hesitate  to  do,"  non  dubito 
may  also  take  an  infinitive  in  classical  Latin,  though  rarely  after 
the  forms  of  expression  non  est  dubitandum,  and  noil  dubitare. 
Thus :  — 

Pro  patria  quis  bonus  dubitet  mortem  oppetere,  what 
good  man  would  hesitate  to  meet  death  for  his  country  ?  n5llte 
dubitare  quln  Pompeid  unl  credatis  omnia,  do  not  be  reluc- 
tant to  trust  everything  to  Pompey  alone. 

NOTE.  Nepos,  Livy,  and  the  later  writers  also  use  the  infinitive  some- 
times after  non  dubito  in  the  meaning  "  I  do  not  doubt  that. ' ' 

c.  Tantum  o.best  takes  after  it  two  clauses  with  ut,  one  a 
pure  result  clause,  the  other  a  substantive  clause.     Thus  :  — 

Tantum  abest  ut  scrlbl  contra  rids  nSllmus,  ut  id  etiam 
maxime  optemus,  so  far  am  I  from  being  unwilling  to  have 
men  write  against  me,  that  that  is  what  I  particularly  desire 
(Cic.,  Tusc.,  ii.,  2,  4). 

d.  When  clauses  introduced  by  ut,  quln,  etc.,  contain  the 
apodosis  of  a  past  condition  contrary  to  fact,  and  depend  on  a 
secondary   tense,   the  circumlocution  facturus    (etc.)  fuerit  is 
generally  used  instead  of  a  pluperfect  subjunctive.     Thus  :  — 

Adeo  inopia  est  coactus  Hannibal,  ut,  nisi  cum  fugae 
specie  abeundum  timuisset,  Galliam  repetiturus  fuerit, 
Hannibal  was  driven  by  want  to  such  a  pass  that  if  he  had  not 
been  afraid  of  seeming  to  run  away  if  he  withdrew,  he  would 
have  gone  back  to  Gaul  (Liv.,  xxii.,  32,  3). 

e.  Sometimes  the  perfect  subjunctive  of  a  word  like  posse, 
debere,  etc.,  or  a  gerundive,  is  used  in  the  same  way.     Thus  :  — 


298  SYNTAX. 

Hand  dubium  fuit  quirt,  nisi  ea  mora  intervenisset,  cas- 
tra  eo  die  capl  potuerint,  there  was  no  doubt  that,  if  this 
delay  had  not  occurred,  the  camp  could  have  been  taken  on  that 
day ;  adeo  aequls  vlribus  gesta  res  est,  ut,  si  adf  uissent 
Etruscl,  accipienda  clades  fuerit,  the  engagement  took  place 
with  forces  so  nearly  equal  that  if  the  Etruscans  had  been  there 
a  disaster  must  have  befallen  us. 

Cf.  517,  below. 

NOTE.  The  above  treatment  of  subjunctive  substantive  clauses  is  in- 
tended to  classify  as  conveniently  as  may  be  the  kinds  of  verbs  after  which 
such  clauses  are  most  common.  Various  other  verbs  sometimes  express 
ideas  to  which  the  same  sort  of  notion  may  be  attached,  and  can  then  of 
course  take  such  a  substantive  clause.  Thus  :  — 

Ad  Appl  Claudl  senectutem  accedebat  etiam  ut  caecus  esset,  to  the 
old  age  of  Appius  Claudius  was  added  blindness  also  (Cic.,  Sen.,  6,  16) ; 
quam  palmam  utinam  dt  immortales,  Sclpio,  tibi  reservent,  ut  avl  reliquids 
persequare,  this  glory  of  finishing  yoiir  grandfather's  work  I  pray  that 
the  immortal  gods  may  keep  for  you,  Scipio  (Cic.,  /Sen.,  6,  19). 

For  other  kinds  of  substantive  clauses,  see  540,  and  as  follows :  — 

Clauses  with  Quod,  540,  4. 

Infinitive  Clauses,  515  ff.,  and  533  ff. 

Indirect  Questions,  518. 

Relative  Clauses  (other  than  those  of  Purpose  or  Result). 

500.  (1.)  Relative  clauses  take  the  INDICATIVE  when 
they  state  (or  deny)  a  FACT  in  regar'd  to  the  antecedent. 
Such  clauses  may  also  imply  a  cause,  result,  concession, 
etc.,  or  be  equivalent  to  a  condition,  but  the  fact  is  always 
the  prominent  thing. 

(2.)  Relative  clauses  take  the  SUBJUNCTIVE  when  they 
indicate  a  QUALITY  or  CHARACTERISTIC  of  the  antecedent 
conceived  (a)  as  making  the  statement  of  the  main  clause 
applicable ;  (5)  as  a  cause  or  hindrance  of  that  statement ; 
(c)  as  a  special  restriction  or  a  condition  of  its  applica- 
tion ;  (d)  as  producing  a  given  result. 

NOTE.  This  use  of  the  subjunctive  is  often  called  the  SUBJUNCTIVE  OF 
CHARACTERISTIC,  especially  when  a  result  is  involved  in  it  (class  d).  The 
antecedent  is  frequently  a  word  like  is,  tdlis,  tantus,  nemo. 


RELATIVE   CLAUSES. 


299 


501.  The  following  examples  will  make  these  uses  and 
distinctions  clearer. 
INDICATIVE. 

Virtus    est   una   altissimis 
deflxa  radlcibus,  quae  num- 


quam  vi  ulla  tabefactari  po- 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

(a.) 

Innocentia  est  adfectio  tails 
animi,  quae  noceat  riemirii, 


test,  virtue  is  the  one  thing  harmlessness  is  that  sort  of 
which,  fixed  upon  the  deepest  mental  disposition  which  harms 
roots,  can  never  be  shaken  by  nobody  (Cic.,  Ttisc.,  iii.,  8,  16). 
anyforce*(Cic.,PM.,iv.,5,13). 

Fortunatus  illius  exitus  qui 
ea  non  vidit,  cum  fierent, 
quae  providit  futura,  happy 
his  end,  for  he  saw  not  when 
they  came  the  things  which  he 
foresaw  were  coming  (Cic., 
Brut.,  96,  329). 

Curat  Chrysogonus,  ut  eius 
bona  veneant  statim,  qui  non  sem,  tamen  complures  Athe- 
norat  hominem  aut  rem,  Chry-  nls  dies  sum  commoratus,  I, 
sogonus  took  care  to  have  his  though  I  had  dabbled  in  Greek 
effects  at  once  sold,  though  he  literature  late  and  but  slightly, 
did  not  know  either  the  man  yet  tarried  several  days  at  Ath- 
or  the  case  (Cic.,  Rose.  Am.,  ens  (cf.Cic.,  de  Or.,  i.,  18,  82). 

(O.) 


0  fortunate  adulescens,  qui 
tuae  virtutis  Homerum  prae- 
conem  inveneris,  O  happy 
youth,  in  that  you  found  in 
Homer  the  herald  of  your  valor 
(Cic.,  Arch.,  10,  24). 

EgOmet,  qui  sero  ac  levi- 
ter  Graecas  litteras  attigis- 


.Epicurus    se    unus,    quod 


37,  105). 

Quia    me     meamque    rem, 

quod  in  te  uno  fuit,  delace-  sciam,  sapientem  profiterl  est 

ravistl,  because,  so  far  as  was  ausus,  Epicurus  alone,  so  far  as 

in  your  individual  power,  you  I  know,  ventured  to  proclaim 

have  ruined  me  and  my  inter-  himself  a  wise  man  (Cic.,  Fin., 


ests  (Plaut.,  Capt.,  666). 
Catonem  vero   quis  nostro- 


ii.,  3,  7). 

Omnium  quidem  dratorum, 


*  The  difference  between  the  two  moods  in  relative  clauses  often  cannot 
be  shown  by  an  English  translation  without  greatly  changing  the  form  of 
the  expression,  but  a  more  or  less  literal  translation  will  perhaps  aid  the 
pupil  in  understanding  the  use  of  the  moods,  by  clearing  from  his  path  any 
difficulties  arising  from  the  meanings  of  the  Latin  words. 


300 


SYNTAX. 


rum  oratorum,  qui  quidem 
nunc  sunt,  legit  ?  but  who  of 
of  our  orators  —  of  the  present 
age  at  least  —  reads  Cato  ? 
(Cic.,  Brut.,  17,  65). 

Quis  ignored,  qui  modo 
umquam  mediocriter  res  istds 
sclre  curavit,  quin  tria  Grae- 
corum  genera  sint  ?  who  does 
not  know,  provided  he  has  ever 
taken  moderate  pains  to  under- 
stand this  subject,  that  there 
are  three  races  of  Greeks? 
(Cic.,  Flacc.,  27,  64). 

Quisquis  hu.c  venerit,  va- 
pulabit,  whoever  comes  here 
will  get  a  beating  (Plaut., 
Amph.,  153). 

Virtutem  qui  adeptus  erit, 
ubicumque  erit  gentium,  a 
riobls  dlligetur,  the  man  who 
acquires  virtue  will  be  esteemed 
by  us  wherever  he  shall  be 
(Cic.,  N.  D.,  i.,  44,  121). 

Maximum  ornamentum 
amlcitiae  tollit,  qui  ex  ea, 
tollit  verecundiam,  he  takes 
away  the  greatest  adornment 
of  friendship,  who  takes  away 
respect  from  it  (Cic.,  Am.,  22, 
83). 

Quicquam  bonum  est,  quod 
non  eum  qui  id  possidet,  meli- 
orem  f  acit  ?  is  there  any  good 
thing  which  does  not  make 
him  who  possesses  it  better  ? 
Cic.,  Par.,  i.,  3,  14). 


quos  quidem  ego  cognove- 
rim,  acutissimum  iudico  Q. 
Sertorium,  of  all  orators  — 
those  at  least  whom  I  know  — 
I  judge  Quintus  Sertorius  to 
be  the  sharpest  (Cic.,  Brut., 
48,180). 

Servos  est  nemo,  qui  modS 
tolerabtti  condicwne  sit  servi- 
tutis,  qui  non  auddciam  clvi- 
um  perhorrescat,  there  is  not 
a  slave,  provided  he  is  in  an 
endurable  state  of  slavery,  who 
does  not  shudder  at  the  reck- 
lessness of  citizens  (Cic.,  Cat., 
iv.,  8,  16). 

Quaecumque  causa  vos 
hue  attulisset,  laetarer,  I 
should  be  glad,  whatever  rea- 
son had  brought  you  here  (Cic., 
de  Or.,  ii.,  4,  15). 

Philosophia,  cui  qui  pa- 
reat,  omne  tempus  aetatis  sine 
molestid  possit  degere,  philoso- 
phy, whose  obedient  disciples 
can  pass  all  the  periods  of  life 
without  annoyance  (Cic.,  Sen., 
1,2). 

(d.) 

Quis  tarn  fuit  Hid  tempore 
ferreus,  qui  non  illdrum  aeta- 
te,  nobilitate,  miserid  comino- 
veretur  ?  who  was  there  then 
so  hard  hearted  as  not  to  be 
influenced  by  the  age  and  rank 
and  misfortunes  of  these  peo- 
ple? (Cic.,  Verr.,v.,  46,  121). 


RELATIVE   CLAUSES.  301 

a.  The   subjunctive  of    characteristic  is    especially  common 
after  general  expressions  of  existence  or  non-existence.     When 
such  expressions  are  followed  by  an  indicative  relative  clause 
they  usually  contain  some  word  like  multi,  qmdam,  etc.,  which 
to  a  certain  extent  specializes  them.     (Cf.  5OO,  note.) 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Sunt  autem  multi,  .  .  .  qui         Sunt  qui  discessum  anirrii 

eripiunt*    aliis   quod    alils  a  corpore  putent  esse  mor- 

largiantur,  but  there  are  many  tern,  there  are   [philosophers] 

who   take   away  from  one   to  who  think  that   death   is   the 

give  to  another  (Cic.,  Off.,  i.,  departure  of  the  soul  from  the 

14,  43).  body  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  9,  18). 

b.  The  distinction  between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive 
is  perhaps  most  easy  to  see  in  the  clauses  which  are  equivalent 
to  the  protases  of  conditions,  as  in  the  last  examples  under  class 
(c)  above ;  although  here,  too,  the  distinction  is  a  very  subtle 
one.     Qui  adeptus  erit  is  the  man  who  as  a  fact  shall  have  got, 
qui  pareat,  the  man  who  in  any  given  case  should  obey.     With 
the  general  relatives  quisquis,  quicumque,  etc.,  the  indicative  is 
much  more  common  than  the  subjunctive. 

c.  Short  relative   clauses  merely  defining  an  individual,  and 
thus  practically  equivalent  to  a  descriptive  adjective,  are  apt  to 
take  the  indicative  where  a  characteristic  subjunctive  might  be 
expected. f     Thus  :  — 

Haec  est,  inquam,  societas,  in  qua  omnia  Insunt,  quae  pu- 
tant  homines  expetenda,  this  is  an  association,  I  say,  in  which 
are  contained  all  the  things  which  men  think  worth  aiming  at 
(Cic.,  Am.,  22,  84). 

*  The  fact  quality  still  comes  out  sharply  in  these  cases,  and  thus  dis- 
tinguishes them  from  the  subjunctive  clauses. 

t  The  pupil  should  perhaps  be  cautioned  that  the  indicative  here  has  not 
any  more  than  elsewhere  the  same  shade  of  meaning  which  a  subjunctive 
would  have.  It  is  only  that  the  point  of  view  of  the  writer  is  slightly 
different  according  to  the  mood  he  chooses  in  any  given  case. 


OF    TRF 

UNIVERSITY 


302  SYNTAX. 

Clauses  with  the  Temporal  Particles  Dam,  Donee,  Quoad. 
502.  Dum,  donee,  quoad,  meaning  "  so  long  as,"  *  or 
"  while,"  f  almost  always  take  the  indicative  in  classical 
Latin. 

NOTE.     They  thus  simply  mark  the  fact  that  one  action  is  coextensive 
with,  or  happens  during,  another. 

Examples  are : 

Ut  aegrotd,  dum  anima,  est,  spes  esse  dlcitur,  sic  ego, 
quoad  Pompei-us  in  Italia  fuit,  sperare  rion  destiti,  as  a  sick 
man,  so  long  as  the  breath  of  life  remains,  is  said  to  have  hope, 
so  I  did  not  cease  to  hope  as  long  as  Pornpey  was  in  Italy  (Cic., 
Att.j  ix.,  10,  3)  ;  dum  ego  in  Sicilia  sum,  nulla  statua  de- 
iecta  est,  while  I  was  in  Sicily  not  a  statue  was  thrown  down 
(Cic.,  Vei*r.,  ii.,  66,  161)  ;  tud-s  epistulas  cum  lego,  'minus  mih$ 
turpis  videor,  sed  tarn  dm,  dum  Ieg5,  when  I  read  your  letters 
I  fancy  myself  less  base,  but  only  so  long  as  I  am  reading  (Cic., 
Att.,  ix.,  6,  5)  ;  dum  in  Asia  bellum  geritur,  tw  in  Aetolia, 
quidem  quietae  res  fuerant,  while  the  war  was  going  on  in 
Asia,  affairs  had  been  in  unrest  even  in  Aetolia  (Liv.,  xxxviii., 
1,  l)  ;  neque  enim,  dum  eram  vobiscum,  animum  meum  vide- 
bat  is,  for  while  I  was  with  you,  you  did  not  see  my  soul  (Cic., 
Sen.,  22,  79)  ;  dum  haec  Vels  agebantur,  interim  arx  Romae 
Capitoliumque  in  ingentl  perlculo  fuit,  in  the  interval  while 
these  things  were  going  on  at  Vei,  the  Citadel  and  Capitol  at 
Rome  came  into  great  danger  (Liv.,  v.,  47,  l)  ;  dum  Latinae 
loquentur  litterae,  quercus  huic  loco  lion  deerit,  as  long  as 
Latin  literature  shall  [live  and]  speak,  this  place  will  not  lack  an 
oak-tree  (Cic.,  Legg.,  i.,  1,  2) ;  hoc  fed,  dum  licuit,  intermls'i, 
quoad  non  licuit,  this  I  did  as  long  as  it  was  allowable,  and 
refrained  from  as  long  as  it  was  not  allowable  (Cic.,  Phil.,  iii., 
13,  33). 

*  I.  e.,  definitely  marking  duration  of  time. 

t  L  e.,  either  indefinitely  marking  duration  or  denoting  a  certain  point  in 
a  given  time. 


CLAUSES  WITH  DUM,  DON  EC,   QUOAD.  303 

Donee  grains  eram  tibi, 
Persarum  vigul  rege  beatior. 

More  blest  than  Persia's  king  I  throve, 
What  time  thou  heldst  me  dear. 

(Hor.,  Carm.,  iii.,  9,  1  ff.) 

a.  Dum  has  a- preference  for  the  present  tense.     (Cf.  468.) 

b.  Donee  is  not  used  in  Cicero  in  these  meanings,  nor  in 
Caesar  and  Sallust  at  all. 

c.  Sometimes  a  causal  notion  is  implied  in  the  clause  with 
dum.     Thus  :  — 

Ita  dum  pauca  mancipia  retinere  volt,  fortiinas  omnes 
perdidit,  thus,  in  consequence  of  wishing  to  hold  on  to  a  few 
slaves,  she  lost  all  her  property  (Cic.,  Caec.,  17,  56)  ;  in  has 
cladls  incidimus,  dum  metui  quam  carl  esse  et  dlligl  malui- 
mus,  these  are  the  disasters  we  have  fallen  into  in  consequence 
of  having  preferred  to  be  feared  rather  than  to  be  dear  and  be- 
loved (Cic.,  Off.,  ii.,  8,  29). 

d.  The  subjunctive  with  dum,  donee,  quoad,  in  the  meanings 
"  while,"  "  so  long  as,"  is  very  rare  in  classical  Latin,  tmt  occurs 
several  times  in  Livy,  and  becomes  more  common  later.     The 
subjunctive  here  seems  to  mark  the  character  of  the  time  rather 
than  the  fact  of  the  occurrence,  and  thus  to  differ  from  the  indi- 
cative just  as  the  relative  clauses  of  characteristic  do.    Thus :  — 

Isto  bond  utare  dum  adsit,  cum  absit  ne  requlras,  use  that 
blessing  while  it  is  there,  but  when  it  is  gone  do  not  pine  for  it 
(Cic.,  Sen.,  10,  33)  ;  nihil  deinde  moratus,  rex  quattuor  milia 
armatorum,  dum  recens  terror  esset,  Scotussam  misit,  then 
with  no  delay  the  king  sent  four  thousand  armed  men  to  Sco- 
tussa  while  the  panic  was  fresh  (Liv.,  xxxvi.,  9, 13)  ;  nihil  sane 
trepidabant  [elephantl~\,  donee  continent!,  velut  ponte  age- 
rentur,  the  elephants  displayed  no  excitement  as  long  as  they 
were  driven  along  what  seemed  to  be  a  continuous  bridge  (Liv., 
xxi.,  28,  10).* 

*  These  cases  are  sometimes,  but  it  seems  to  me  less  satisfactorily, 
explained  otherwise  :  dum  adsit,  as  attraction  (see  523),  dum  esset,  as 
implied  indirect  discourse  (see  522),  donee  agerentur,  as  a  general  con- 
dition (see  477,  d,  2). 


304 


SYNTAX. 


503.  With  dum,  donee,  quoad,  meaning  "  until,"  the 
indicative  simply  chronicles  the  fact,  the  subjunctive  im- 
plies &  purpose.  Thus  :  — 

INDICATIVE. 

Mihi  quidem  usque  curae 
erit,  quid  agas,  dum,  quid 
egeris,  sciero,  I  certainly  shall 
be  constantly  anxious  as  to  how 
you  are  until  I  know  how  you 
have  been  (Cic.,  Fam.,  xii., 


Usque  eo  timui,  donee  ad 
reiciundos  indices  venimus, 
I  was  afraid  up  to  the  time 
when  we  came  to  rejecting 
jurymen  (Cic.,  Verr.,  i.,  6,  17). 

Tamen  non  faciam  finem 
rogandi,  quoad  nobls  nun- 
tiatum  erit  te  id  fecisse,  yet 
I  shall  not  stop  asking  until 
word  is  brought  me  that  you 
have  done  the  thing  (Cic.,  Att., 
xvi.,  16,  16). 


SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Dum  reliquae  naves  eo 
convenirent,  ad  horam  rio- 
nam  in  ancorls  exspectavit, 
he  waited  at  anchor  till  the 
ninth  hour  for  the  rest  of  the 
ships  to  assemble  there  (Caes., 
B.  G.,  iv.,  23). 

Rogandl  orandique  sunt,  ut 
.  .  .  differant  in  tempus 
aliud,  dum  defervescat  Ira, 
they  must  be  asked  and  begged 
to  postpone  [their  vengeance] 
till  another  tune,  namely,  till 
their  wrath  cools  down  (Cic., 
Tusc.,  iv.,  36,  78). 

Exspecta,  amabo  te,  dum 
Atticum  conveniam,  wait, 
please,  till  I  meet  Atticus  (Cic., 
Att.,  vii.,  1,  4). 


a.  Donee  and  quoad  are  very  rare  with  the  subjunctive  in  this 
sense. 

b.  The  imperfect  and  pluperfect  indicative  do  not  occur  with 
dum,  meaning  "  until,"  and  in  the  subjunctive  only  the  tenses 
for  incomplete  action  (present  and  imperfect)  are  found. 

Clauses  of  Proviso. 

504.  Dum,  modo,  and  dummodo,  indicating  a  PROVISO 
("if  only,"  "provided  that"),  take  the  subjunctive. 
The  negative  particle  is  ne.  Thus  :  — 

Oderint,  dum  metuant,  let  them  hate  if  only  they  fear 
(Suet.,  Col.,  30)  ;  dum  res  maneant,  verba  fingant  arbir 
tratu  sud,  provided  the  things  are  left,  let  them  fashion  words 


CLAUSES   WITH   ANTEQUAM  AND   PEIUSQUAM.      305 

at  their  own  sweet  will  (Cic.,  Fin.,  v.,  29,  89)  ;  manent  ingenia 
senibus,  naodo  permaneat  studium  et  industria,  the  mental 
faculties  of  the  old  do  not  become  impaired  provided  their 
interest  and  energy  hold  out  (Cic.,  Sen.,  7,  22)  ;  celeriter  ad 
comitia  veniendum  censed,  dummodo  ne  haec  ambitiosa 
festinatio  aliquid  imminuat  eius  gloriae,  I  think  we  ought 
to  come  quickly  to  the  election,  provided  that  such  haste 
prompted  by  ambition  should  not  detract  somewhat  from  his 
glory  (Cic.,  Fam.,  x.,  25,  2) ;  omnia  postposul,  dummodo 
praeceptis  patris  parerem,  I  put  everything  off,  provided  I 
obeyed  my  father's  instructions  (Cic.  fil.  apud  Cic.,  Fam.,  xvi., 
21,  6). 

NOTE.  The  proviso  with  modo  and  dummodo  was  originally  a  hortatory 
subjunctive  ;  with  dum  it  developed  from  the  temporal  use.  Cases  like 
the  first  example  under  502,  d  (utdre,  dum  adsit),  are  the  connecting  link 
between  the  indicative  temporal  clause  and  the  proviso.  In  these  provi- 
sional clauses  the  subjunctive  retains  its  indefinite  future  force,  the  present 
applying  to  a  present,  the  imperfect  to  a  past,  situation. 

Clauses  with  Aniequam  and  Priusquam. 

505.  With  antequam  or  priusquam,  "  before,"  the  in- 
dicative simply  states  (or  denies)  as  a  fact  the  priority 
of  the  thing  said  in  the  main  clause  to  that  said  in  the 
temporal  clause  ;  the  subjunctive  marks  a  further  relation 
between  the  two  clauses.  Thus :  — 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Antequam  pro  L.  Mure-  Is  videlicet  antequam  ve- 
na  dicere  InstituS,  pro  me  niat  in  Pontum,  litteras  ad 
ipso  pauca  dicam,  before  I  be-  Cn.  Pompeium  mittet,  he  will, 
gin  to  speak  in  defense  of  Lu-  of  course,  send  a  letter  to 
cius  Murena  I  will  say  a  few  Gnaeus  Pompeius  before  he 
words  in  my  own  behalf  (Cic.,  gets  to  Pontus  (Cic.,  Agr.,  ii., 
Mur.,  1,  2).  20,  53). 

Petillni  non  antequam  Tragoedi  cottldie  ante- 
vires  ad  standum  in  miiris  quam  pronuntient  vocem 
ferendaque  arma  deerant,  cubantes  sensim  excitant,  the 
expuanati  sunt,  the  Petilini  [Greek]  tragedians,  in  a  re- 


306 


SYNTAX. 


were  not  beaten  until  strength 
to  stand  on  the  walls  and  hold 
their  arms  failed  them  (Liv., 
xxiii.,  30,  4). 

Neque  defatigabor  ante- 
quam  ancipitls  vias  ratio- 
nesque  et  pro  omnibus  et  contra 
omnia  disputandi  perceper5, 
nor  shall  I  yield  to  fatigue  be- 
fore I  have  learned  the  devious 
ways  and  principles  of  argu- 
ment on  both  sides  of  all  ques- 
tions (Cic.,  de  Or.,  iii.,  36,  145). 

Inde  ante  pi-ofectus  est 
Anton  ins  quam  ego  eum  ve- 
nisse  cognovi,  Antonius  went 
away  from  there  before  I 
learned  that  he  had  come  (Cic., 
Att.,  xv.,  1,  a,  2). 

Membrls  utimur  prius- 
quara  didicimus,  cid-us  ea 
causa  utilitatis  habeamus,  we 
use  our  limbs  before  we  have 
learned  for  what  useful  pur- 
pose we  have  them  (Cic.,  Fin., 
iii.,  20,  66). 

Neque  prius  fugere  desti- 
terunt,  quam  ad  fliimen  Rhe- 
num  .  .  .  pervenenint,  nor 
did  they  stop  fleeing  before 
they  reached  the  river  Rhine 
(Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  53). 

Antequam  tuas  leg!  litte- 
ras,  hominem  ire  cupiebam, 
before  I  read  your  letter  I 
wanted  the  man  to  go  (Cic., 
Att.y  ii.,  7,  2). 


clining  position,  daily  practice 
raising  their  voices  gradually 
louder  and  louder,  before  they 
are  to  declaim  their  parts  (Cic., 
de  Or.,  i.,  59,  251). 

Priusquam  inde  dlgre- 
derentur,  rogantl  Mettio,  ex 
foedere  icto  quid  imperaret, 
imperat  Tullus,  uti  iuventutem 
in  armis  habeat,  in  answer  to 
the  question  of  Mettius  before 
they  left  the  place,  what  his 
orders  were  in  accordance  with 
the  treaty  they  had  struck,  Tul- 
lus  ordered  him  to  keep  the 
young  men  under  arms  (Liv., 
i.,  26,  i). 

Inde  ante  discessit  quam 
ilium  venisse  audissem,  he 
went  from  there  before  I  had 
heard  of  his  having  come  (Cic., 
Att.,  xiv.,  20,  2). 

Numidae  priusquam  ex 
castrls  subvenlretur,  sicutl 
iussi  erant,  in  proximos  colles 
descendunt,  the  Numidians  go 
down,  as  they  had  been  ordered, 
to  the  nearest  hills  before  aid 
from  the  camp  could  arrive 
(Sail,  lug.,  54). 

Non  prius  Viridovicem  re- 
liqiwsque  duces  ex  concilid 
dimittuntj  quam  ab  his  sit 
concessum,  they  do  not  let 
Viridovix  and  the  other  leaders 
go  from  the  meeting  before 
they  have  granted  (Caes.,  B. 
G.,  iii.,  18). 


ANTEQUAM,  PRIUSQUAM.  -  POSTQUAM,   UB 


NOTE.  The  difference  between  the  two  moods  can  be  seen  most  plainly 
in  the  fourth  pair  of  examples  above.  Here  the  indicative  simply  chroni- 
cles the  fact  that  Antonius  had  gone  before  Cicero  learned  of  his  coming1, 
the  subjunctive  implies  that  Cicero's  not  knowing  of  his  coming  prevented 
him  from  stopping-  Antonius'  departure.  In  the  first  subjunctive  example 
there  is  an  implication  that  it  is  important  to  have  the  letter  sent  before 
the  writer  himself  appears  ;  in  the  second  example  the  purpose  of  the 
practice  is  hinted  at  in  the  subjunctive  pronuntient,  and  so  on. 

a.  Beginning,  perhaps,  with  Livy,  the  feeling  for  this  differ- 
ence between  an  indicative  and  a  subjunctive  in  temporal  clauses 
is  more  and  more  confused,  and  the  subjunctive  becomes  more 
and  more  common  where  it  is  difficult,  if  not  impossible,  to  see 
why  the  indicative  should  not  have  been  used.  Thus  :  — 

Panels  ante  diebus  quam  Syracusae  caperentur,  T.  Ota- 
cilius  CMin  quinqueremibus  octoginta  Uticam  ab  Lilybaed  trans- 
misit,  a  few  days  before  Syracuse  was  taken,  Titus  Otacilius 
crossed  over  to  Utica  from  Libybaeum  with  eighty  men-of-war 
(Liv.,  xxv.,  31,  12). 

Cf.  also  Clauses  with  Cum,  509. 

Clauses  with  Postquam,  Ubi,  etc. 

506.  Clauses  with  postquam  (posteaquam),  "  after," 
and  ubi,  "  when,"  "  after,"  "  as  soon  as,"  almost  always, 
and  clauses  with  ut,  "  when,"  "  as  soon  as,"  and  simul  ac, 
"  as  soon  as,"  perhaps  always,  take  the  indicative,  simply 
stating  (or  denying)  that  the  act  of  the  main  clause  is  sub- 
sequent to  that  of  the  temporal  clause.  These  conjunc- 
tions have  a  preference  for  the  perfect  tense,  even  where 
the  pluperfect  would  be  more  exact  (cf.  469).  Thus  :  — 

Milites  postquam  victoriam  adept!  sunt,  nihil  reliqui 
victls  fecere,  the  soldiers,  after  they  [had]  won  the  victory,  left 
nothing  to  the  conquered  (Sail.,  Cat.,  11)  ;  postquam  Instruct!, 
utrlusque  stabant,  ...  in  medium  duces  procedunt,  af- 
ter they  got  into  position  on  both  sides,  .  .  .  the  leaders  came 
forward  into  the  space  between  (Liv.,  i.,  23,  6)  ;  ubi  de  eius 
adventu  Helvetil  certiores  fact!  sunt,  legatos  ad  eum  mlttunt, 
when  (after)  the  Helvetians  were  informed  of  his  arrival,  they 


308  SYNTAX. 

sent  ambassadors  to  him  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  7)  ;  Pompeius  ut 
equitdtum  suum  pulsum  vidit,  acie  excessit,  after  Pompeius 
saw  his  cavalry  routed  he  withdrew  from  the  battle  (Caes., 
B.  C.,  iii.,  94)  ;  simul  ac  primum  el  occasio  visa  est, 
aversa  pecunia  publica  quaestor  consulem  deseruit,  as  soon  as  it 
seemed  to  him  a  good  opportunity,  the  quaestor,  appropriating  the 
funds  of  the  state,  abandoned  his  consul  (Cic.,  Verr.,  i.,  13,  34). 

507.  Other   temporal   expressions   than    ante,  prius, 
and  post  are  sometimes  followed  by  a  clause  with  quam. 
Thus :  — 

Intra  triduum  quam  oppugnare  coeperat,  receptam  [ur- 
bern]  ex  hostibus  colonls  restituit,  within  three  days  from  be- 
ginning the  siege  he  recovered  the  town  from  the  enemy  and 
restored  it  to  the  settlers  (Liv.,  xli.,  16,  8)  ;  Lilybaeum  tertio 
die  quam  inde  profectus  erat  .  .  .  rediit,  he  came  back 
to  Lilybaeum  three  days  after  he  had  gone  from  there  (Liv., 
xxv.,  31,  14)  ;  multa  mehercule  fecit  Antonius  pridie  quam 
tu  ilium  relinqueres.  Antonius  was  very  active  indeed  the  day 
before  you  left  him  (cf.  Veil.,  Pater.,  ii.,  83,  3)  ;  cum,  eo  Catulus 
et  Lucullus  nosque  ipsl  postridie  venissemm  quam  apud  C&- 
tulum  fuissemus,  when  Catulus,  Lucullus,  and  myself  had 
come  there  the  day  after  we  had  been  at  Catulus's  house  (Cic., 
Acad.,  ii.,  3,  9). 

508.  Livy,  Tacitus,  and  the  later  writers  sometimes 
use  the  subjunctive  (pluperfect  as  well  as  imperfect)  with 
ubl  (and  quotiens)^  to  denote  the  general  repetition  of 
an  act  in  past  time,  where  the  classical  writers  have  the 
indicative.     Thus :  — 

Id  ubl  dixisset,  hastam  in  fines  eorum  emittebat,  when 
[every  time]  he  had  said  this,  he  would  throw  a  spear  into  their 
country  (Liv.,  i.,  32,  14) ;  quotiens  super  tall  negotio  consul- 
taret,  editd  domiis  parte  ac  llberti  uriius  conscientia,  utebatur, 
whenever  he  conferred  about  a  matter  of  this  kind,  he  would 
retire  to  the  upper  part  of  the  palace  and  take  only  one  freed- 
man  as  a  witness  (Tac.,  Ann.,  vi.,  21). 


POSTQUAM,   UBL  -  CUM  (QUOM).  309 

Cf.  under  Conditional  Sentences,  477,  d,  2,  and  under  cum, 
51O,  1,  and  examples  8-13  in  the  indicative  column,  9-11  in 
the  subjunctive  column. 

NOTE  1.  Ut  is  found  with  the  subjunctive  only  in  the  following  exam- 
pie:- 

lam  ut  llmen  exirem  ad  genua  accidit  lacrumdns  misera,  the  minute 
I  crossed  the  threshold  the  poor  girl  fell  weeping  at  my  feet  (Ter.,  Hec., 
iii.,  3,  18). 

NOTE  2.  Postquam  also  occurs  in  one  or  two  passages  with  the  subjunc- 
tive, though  in  the  few  places  in  Cicero  where  it  occurs  in  the  manuscripts 
(in  the  form  posted  quam)  the  best  texts  now  read  posted  cum. 

Glauses  with  Cum  (Quom). 

509.  (1.)  Clauses  with  cum  (quom),  "  when,"  if  pres- 
ent, imperfect,  or  future,  mark  a  collateral  event  occurring 
at  the  same  time  as  the  main  event ;  if  perfect,  pluperfect, 
or  future  perfect,  they  mark  a  collateral  event  occurring 
just  before  the  main  event. 

(2.)  If  only  this  temporal  relation  exists  between  the 
two  events,  the  cum  clause  takes  the  INDICATIVE. 

(3.)  If  a  further  relation  *  exists,  but  the  actual  oc- 
currence of  the  collateral  event  is  more  important  than  that 
relation,  the  cum  clause  again  takes  the  INDICATIVE. 

(4.)  But  if  the  marking  of  the  further  relation  is  the 
more  important  thing  to  the  writer,  the  cum  clause  takes 
the  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

a.  In  the  imperfect  and  pluperfect  tenses  the  subjunctive  is 
so  much  more  common  f  than  the  indicative,  even  where  a 
difference  of  meaning  is  hardly  appreciable,  that  it  is  a  good 
practical  rule  for  the  beginner  in  writing  Latin,  that  these  tenses 
should  not  be  used  in  the  indicative. 

*  That  is,  if  one  event  is  to  be  regarded  as  causing,  hindering,  or  other- 
wise affecting  the  other. 

t  The  proportion  of  subjunctives  to  indicatives  in  Cicero's  orations  is 
about  five  to  one  for  the  imperfect  tense,  more  than  twenty  to  one  for  the 
pluperfect. 


310  SYNTAX. 

NOTE.  The  subjunctive  with  cum  is  a  characteristic  subjunctive,  as  with 
the  relative  pronouns.  (Cf.  500,  2,  note.)  The  primary  difference  of  mean- 
ing between  the  indicative  and  the  subjunctive  is  thus  roughly  indicated 
by  the  expressions  "at  the  time  when  "  (indicative),  "  at  a  time  when" 
(subjunctive).  (Cf.  the  first  pair  of  examples  below.) 

510.  From  the  simple  temporal  meaning,  cum  {quom) 
passes  into  the  meanings :  — 

(1.)   "Whenever"  (application  general)  1   chiefly   with   the 

"  Now  that "   (applying  to  the  im-  !    indicative,    until 

mediate  present)  j   after  the  classical 

"  In  that "  (explanatory)  J  period. 

(2.)   "  Although "  (implying  a  hindrance)    l   with    the    sub- 
"  Since  "  (implying  a  reason)  I  junctive,       ex- 

"  While  on  the  other  hand "  (an  alter-  j  cept    in     early 
native)  J   Latin. 

a.  In  Plautus  and  Terence  and  other  early  Latin  writers,  the 
subjunctive  with  q uom  is  rare,  the  indicative  being  used,  whether 
the  mere  fact  of  time  is  to  be  expressed  or  a  reason  is  to  be 
implied. 

511.  These   uses   and  shades  of  meaning  can  best  be 
understood  by  a  careful  study  of  a  series  of  examples  like 
the  following  :  — 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE- 

Nam  in  ceteris  rebus  cum  Nunc    in    ipso    discrlmine 

venit   calamitas,   turn   detrl-  ordinis  iudwidrumque  vestro- 

mentum  accipitur,  for  in  eve-  rum,  cum   sint  paratl   qul, 

ry thing  else  the  damage  is  re-  etc.,  now  at  the  very  crisis  of 

ceived  only  when  the  disaster  the  danger  to  the  senate  and  to 

actually    comes     (Cic.,     Leg.  your  right  of  supplying  juries, 

Man.,  6,  15).  at  a  time  when  there  are  peo- 

Cum  haec  Romae  ageban-  pie  ready  to,  etc.  (Cic.,  Verr. 

tur,   Chalcide  Antwchus  sol-  Act.,  i.,  1,  2). 

licitabat    cwitatium    animos,  Ipse,    cum    primum   pa- 

when   this    was   going    on    at  bull  copia  esse  inciperet,  ad 


CLAUSES   WITH   CUM  (QUOM). 


311 


Rome,  Antiochus  was  stirring 
up  the  feelings  of  the  cities  at 
Chalcis  (Liv.,  xxxvi.,  5,  l). 

Cum  haec  leges,  habebi- 
mus  consules,  when  you  read 
this  we  shall  have  consuls  (Cic., 
Att.,  v.,  12,  2). 

Cum  primum  Edmam 
venl,  nihil  prius  faciendum 
putavl,  as  soon  as  I  got  to 
Rome  I  thought  nothing  ought 
to  be  done  earlier  (Cic.,  Ait., 
iv.,  I,  1). 

Nondum  centum  et  decem 
anrii  sunt  cum  de  pecuniis 
repetundls  a  L.  Pisone  lata 
lex  est,  nulla  antea  cumfuis- 
set,  it  is  not  yet  a  hundred  and 
ten  years  since  Lucius  Piso 
proposed  a  law  about  bribery, 
there  having  been  none  before 
(Cic.,  Off.,  ii.,  21,  75). 

Turn  cum  in  Asia,  res 
magnas  permulti  amiserant, 
sclmus  Romae  solutions  im- 
pedlta  fidem  concidisse,  at 
that  time,  when  a  large  number 
of  people  had  lost  large  for- 
tunes in  Asia,  we  know  that 
payment  was  obstructed  at 
Rome  and  credit  collapsed 
(Cic.,  Leg.  Man.,  7,  19). 

Sin  cum  potuero,  non 
venero,  turn  erit  inimicus, 
but  if  I  do  not  come  when  I 
can,  then  he  will  be  my  enemy 
(Cic.,  Att.,  ix.,  2,  a,  2). 


exercitum  venit,  he  himself,  as 
soon  as  there  began  to  be 
plenty  of  fodder,  went  to  the 
army  (Caes.,  B.  6r.,  ii.,  2). 

Zenonem  cum  Athenls  es- 
sem,  audiebam  frequenter, 
during  my  stay  at  Athens  I 
often  attended  Zeno's  lectures 
(Cic.,  N.  D.,  i.,  21,  59). 

Potero  silere,  Hortensl,  po- 
tero  dissimulare,  cum  tan- 
turn  res  publica  volnus  acce- 
perit  ?  can  I  be  silent,  Hor- 
tensius,  can  I  hide  my  feel- 
ings at  a  time  when  the  state 
has  received  so  severe  a 
wound  ?  (Cic.,  Verr.,  v.,  70, 
179). 

Cum  eius  promissls  legi- 
ones  fortissimae  reclamas- 
sent,  domum  ad  se  venire  ius- 
sit  centuriones,  when  the  le- 
gions most  stoutly  held  out 
against  his  promises,  he  ordered 
the  centurions  to  come  to  his 
house  (Cic.,  Phil.,  v.,  8,  22). 

Cum  hostem  populi  Ro- 
marii  Antonium  iudicasset, 
comes  esse  eius  amentiae  no- 
luit,  having  judged  Antony 
the  enemy  of  the  Roman  peo- 
ple, he  did  not  wish  to  be  the 
companion  of  his  madness 
(Cic.,  Phil.,  iii.,  3,  6). 

Haec  Scipio  cum  dixis- 
set,  L.  Furium  repente  veni- 
entem  adspexit,  etc.,  when 


312 


SYNTAX. 


Serpit  delude  res,  quae  pro- 
did  us  ad  pern  idem,  cum 
semel  coepit,  Idbitur,  then 
the  thing  winds  along,  and 
when  it  has  once  begun  glides 
swiftly  to  destruction  (Cic., 
Am.,  12,  41). 

Deinde  cum  similis  sen- 
sus  exstitit  amoris,  si  ali- 
quem,  etc.,  secondly,  when  a 
like  feeling  of  affection  has 
arisen,  if  any  one,  etc.  (Cic., 
Am.,  S,  27). 

Cum  ad  villain  venl,  hoc 
ipsum  niliil  agere  et  plane 
cessdre  me  delectat,  when  I 
come  to  my  country  seat,  this 
very  inactivity  and  absolute 
idleness  charm  me  (cf.  Cic., 
de  Or.,  ii.,  6,  24). 

Cum  pater  familiar  in- 
lustriore  loco  ndtus  deces- 
sit,  eius  propinqui  conve- 
niunt,  when  the  head  of  a 
house  of  high  birth  dies,  his 
kinsmen  gather  together  (Caes., 
B.  G.,  vi.,  19). 

Cum  rosam  viderat,  turn 
incipere  ver  arbitrdbdtur, 
whenever  he  saw  a  rose  he 
thought  spring  was  beginning 
(Cic.,  Verr.,  v.,  10,  27). 

Plerumque  milites  statwis 
castris  habebat,  nisi  cum  odds 
aut  pdbult  egestas  locum  mu- 
tare  subegerat.  he  generally 
had  been  keeping  the  soldiers 


Scipio  had  said  this,  he  looked 
up  and  suddenly  saw  Lucius 
Furius  coming  (Cic.,  fie  Pub., 
i,  11,  17). 

Cum  autem  contrahat 
amlcitiam,  ut  supra  dixi,  si 
qua  signiftcdtio  virtutis  elu- 
ceat,  ad  quam  se  similis  ani- 
mus adplicet  et  adiungat,  id 
cum  contigit,  amor  exoridtur 
necesse  est,  and  when,  in  case 
as  I  have  said,  some  indication 
of  merit  flashes  out,  towards 
which  a  like  nature  is  drawn 
to  unite  itself,  a  friendship  is 
formed,  —  when  this  happens, 
affection  must  arise  (Cic.,  Am., 
14,  48). 

Ut  A.  Varius,  qui  est  ha- 
bitus iudex  durior,  dicere  con- 
*  sessori  solebat,  cum  datls 
testibus  alii  tamen  citaren- 
tur,  as  Aulus  Varius,  who 
was  considered  an  austere 
judge,  used  to  say  to  his  col- 
league on  the  bench,  when,  af- 
ter some  witnesses  had  been 
heard,  others  were  still  all  the 
time  being  called  (Cic.,  Fin., 
ii.,  19,  62). 

Cum  in  ius  duel  debito- 
rem  vidissent,  undique  con- 
voldba?it,  whenever  they  saw  a 
debtor  arrested,  they  gathered 
from  all  sides  (Llv.,  ii.,  27,  8). 

Neque  hereditdtem  cuius- 
quam  adiit,  nisi  cum  ami- 


CLAUSES   WITH    CUM  (QUOM). 


313 


in  the  same  camp,  except  when 
miasma  or  want  of  fodder  had 
compelled  him  to  change  his 
position  (Sail.,  lug.,  44). 

Atgue  utinam  tarn  in  pe- 
rwulo  fuisset !  cum  ego  Us, 
quibus  meant  salutem  ca- 
rissimam  esse  arbitrabar,  ini- 
mwiss  i  mis  crudeliss  imisque 
usus  sum,  and  oh  that  it 
had  been  in  such  danger  !  now 
that  I  have  found  those  most 
hostile  and  cruel  to  whom  I 
thought  my  safety  was  most 
dear  (Cic.,  Att.,  iii.,  13,  2). 

Sunt  enim  qitidam,  qul 
molestas  amicitids  faciunt, 
cum  ipsl  se  contemn!  putant, 
for  there  are  people  who  make 
friendship  a  bore,  when  [in 
that]  they  keep  fancying  them- 
selves slighted  (Cic.,  .4m.,  20, 
72). 

Quae  cum  praeponunt 
ut  sit  aliqua  r&rum  selectio, 
naturam  videntur  sequi ; 
cum  autem  negant  ea  quic- 
quam  ad  beatam  vltam  per- 
tinere,  rursiis  naturam  re- 
linquunt,  when  [in  that]  they 
put  forward  this  doctrine,  that 
there  is  a  choice  in  things, 
they  seem  to  follow  nature,  but 
in  that  [when]  they  maintain 
that  the  things  have  nothing  to 
do  with  happiness  they  leave 


citia  meruisset,  nor  did  he 
accept  any  man's  bequests  ex- 
cept when  they  belonged  to  him 
through  right  of  friendship 
(Tac.,  Ann.,  ii.,  48). 

Quod  cum  mciius  esse  vi- 
deatur  quam  insania,  tamen 
eiusmodl  est  ut,  etc.,  and  al- 
though this  seems  to  be 
greater  than  insanity,  yet  its 
nature  is  such  that,  etc.  (Cic., 
Tusc.,  iii.,  5,  11). 

Hlc  tu  me  accusas  quod 
me  adflictem,  cum  ita  sim 
adflictus,  ut  nemo  umquam, 
under  these  circumstances  you 
upbraid  me  because  I  bewail 
my  lot,  when  I  have  been  tried 
as  no  man  was  ever  tried  (Cic., 
Att.,  iii.,  12,  1). 

Itaque  fama  et  multitudi- 
nis  iUdicio  moventur,  cum 
id  honestum  putent,  quod 
aplerlsque  laudetur,  therefore 
they  are  influenced  by  what 
men  say  and  by  the  judgment 
of  the  crowd,  when  they  imag- 
ine that  right  which  is  ap- 
proved by  the  majority  (Cic., 
Tusc.,  ii.,  26,  63). 

Qua  caecatl  homines,  cum 
quaedam  etiam  praeclara 
cuperent,  eaque  nescirent 
nee  ubi  nee  qualia  essent, 
fanditus  alii,  etc.,  and  men, 
blinded  by  this,  while  desiring 
some  things  really  admirable, 


314 


SYNTAX. 


nature  again    (Cic.,  Fin.,  iv.,  but  not  knowing  either  where 

16,  43).  or  what  they  were,  have  some 

Gratulor  tibi,  cum  tantum  of   them    utterly,     etc.     (Cic., 

vales    apud    Dolabellam,    I  Tusc.,  iii.,  2,  4). 

congratulate   you  in  that  you  Quae  cum   ita   sint   Cati- 

have   so   much  influence  with  Una  perge  qiid  coepistl,  since 

Dolabella  (Cic.,  Att.,  xiv.,  17,  [now  that]  this  is  so,  Catiline, 

a,  3).  go  on  as  you  have  begun  (Cic., 


Quom.  adfinitate  vostra  me 
arbitraminl    dlgnum,   habed 


Cat.,  i.,  5,  10). 

\_Di&nysius~\,  cum  in  com- 


vobls,    Philto,   magnam  gra-  munibus   suggestls  consistere 

tiam,  in  that  [since]  your  fa-  non   auderet,    contidndrl    ex 

mily  think  me  worthy  of  their  turri  alta  solebat,  Dionysius, 

alliance,    Philto,    I    am    very  not   daring   to   take  his  place 

grateful  (Plaut.,  Trin.,  504).  oil  the  general  platforms,  used 

Di   tibi,   Demea,    bene  fa-  to   speak   from   a   high  tower 

ciant,   quom    te  video  nos-  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  v.,  20,  59). 

trae  familiae  tarn  ex  animo  Cum    ininiicitiae    fuerint 

factum   velle,  the    gods  bless  numquam  .  .  .  rei     publicae 

you,  Demea,  now  that  [since]  providebo,    since    there  never 

I  see  you  wish  our  family  so  have  been  enmities  ...  I  will 

thoroughly    well    (Ter.,    Ad.,  look  out  for  the  country  (Cic., 

917).  Prov.  Cons.,  20,  47). 

a.  When  cum    has  the   general   meaning  "  whenever,"   the 
tense  is  more  commonly  one  of  completed  action.     (Cf.  the  ex- 
amples.) 

b.  The  meaning  of  cum  is  often  more  exactly  denned  (espe- 
cially with  the  indicative)   by  the  addition  of  words  like  prl- 
mum,  interim,  intered,  nondum,  quidem,  tamen,  etc.     (Cf.  the 


512.  Sometimes,  by  an  inversion  which  also  occurs  in 
English,  the  main  statement  is  put  into  the  cum  clause, 
and  the  (grammatically)  principal  clause  contains  the 
accessory  statement.  The  cum  clause  then  stands  after 
the  main  clause,  and  usually  takes  the  indicative.  Thus :  — 


CUM  (QUOM).  —  CUM  .  .  .  TUM. 


315 


INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Dixerat  hoc  ille,  cum  puer  Simulat  se  eorum  praesidio 
nuntiavit  venire  ad  eum  confideret  cum  interea  aliud 
Laelium  domoque  iam  exisse,  quiddam  iam  diu  machine- 
he  had  just  finished  speaking,  tur,  he  pretends  that  he  has 
when  a  slave  brought  word  that  confidence  in  their  protection, 
Laelius  was  coming,  and  had  while  meantime  he  has  been 
already  left  the  house  (Cic.,  Re  long  concocting  another  scheme 
Pub.,  i.,  12,  18).  (Cic.,  Verr.,  Act  i.,  6,  15). 

Dies  nondum  decem  inter-  Ego  in  castra  a.  d.  VII  K. 

cesserant,  cum  ille  alter  fl-  Sept.  veni,  cum  interea  su- 

lius  infans  necatur,  ten  days  perioribus  diebus  ex  senatus- 

had  not  yet  intervened,  when  consulto  et  evocatorum  fir- 

that  other  infant  son  was  slain  mam  mdnum  ,et  equitdtum 

(Cic.,  Clu.,  9,  28).  comparavissem,  I  went  into 

Prlmo  actii  placed,  quom  camp  on  the  twenty-sixth  of 

interea  rumor  venit  datum  August,  when  meanwhile  dur- 

iri  gladiatores  /  populus  con-  ing  the  days  before  I  had  got 

volat,  in  the  first  act  I  win  together  in  accordance  with 

applause,  when  suddenly  a  re-  the  Senate's  decree  a  strong 

port  comes  that  there  is  to  be  force  of  retired  veterans  and 

a  prize  fight,  and  the  people  cavalry  (Cic.,  Fam.,  xv.,  4,  3). 
flock  thither  (Ter.,  Hec.,  39). 

a.  This  inversion  gives  a  more  lively  effect  to  what  is  said. 
Compare  in  English,  "When  we  reached  the  middle  of  the 
valley,  the  cannon  suddenly  thundered  forth,"  and  "We  had 
reached  the  middle  of  the  valley,  when  suddenly  the  cannon 
thundered  forth." 

NOTE.  The  pupil  should  be  cautioned  that  this  inversion  does  not  al- 
ways take  place  when  the  cum  clause  stands  after  the  main  clause. 

513.  Cum  .  .  .  turn  pass  from  the  meaning  "when 
.  .  .  then"  into  the  meanings  "while  .  .  .  yet,"  "not 
only  .  .  .  but  also,"  "  both  .  .  .  and,"  and  then  are  often 
used  to  connect  single  words  or  expressions.  (Cf.  the  last 
example  below.)  '  Thus  :  — 


316  SYNTAX. 

INDICATIVE.  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

Cratippum  cum  audi5  lu-  Cdnsilium  tuum  cum  sem- 
benter,  tum  etiam  propriam  per  probavissem  turn  mul- 
eius  suavitatem  vekementer  to  mag  is  probavl  lectls  tuis 
amplector,  I  not  only  hear  Cra-  llUerls,  though  I  had  always 
tippus  gladly,  but  even  am  par-  approved  your  plan,  I  ap- 
ticularly  fond  of  his  peculiar  proved  it  much  more  after 
charm  of  style.  having  read  your  letter. 

Sed  cum  mulfls  in  rebus  Cumque  plUfimSs  et  mdxi- 
neglegentia  plectimur,  tum  mas  commoditates  aniicitia 
mdxime  in  amicis  et  diligent*  contineat,  tum  ilia  nlmlrum 
dls  et  colendls,  but  while  in  praestat  omnibus,  etc.,  and 
many  things  we  are  punished  while  friendship  includes  very 
for  carelessness,  this  is  particu-  many  great  advantages,  it  no 
larly  the  case  in  choosing  and  doubt  surpasses  all  other  things 
cultivating  friends  (Cic.,  Am.,  in  this,  that  it,  etc.  (Cic.,  Am., 
22,  85).  7,  23). 

Hie  quidem  fructum  omnis  ante  actae  vltae  hodierm  die 
maximum  cepit,  cum  sumnw  consensu  senatus  turn  iudicio 
tuo  gravissinio  et  maxitrio,  as  far  as  he  is  concerned,  he  has 
to-day  reaped  the  richest  fruit  of  all  his  past  life,  both  through 
the  unanimous  approval  of  the  senate  and  through  your  most 
weighty  and  exalted  decision  (Cic.,  Marc.,  1,  3). 

CONSTRUCTIONS   OF  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE. 
The  CONSTRUCTIONS  OF  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  include :  — 

1.  INDIRECT  DISCOURSE  'proper. 

2.  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS. 

3.  CLAUSES  OF  QUOTED  CAUSE. 

4.  Other  dependent  CLAUSES  GIVING  ANOTHER'S  IDEA  without 
any  verb  of  saying  expressed. 

5.  Clauses  in  the  SUBJUNCTIVE  BY  ATTRACTION. 

Indirect  Discourse  Proper. 

514.  When  a  person's  words  or  thoughts  (whether  an- 
other person's  or  the  speaker's  own)  are  quoted,  not  in 
their  exact  grammatical  form,  but  in  narrative  form  de- 


INDIRECT    DISCOURSE.  317 

pending  upon  a  word  of  saying  or  thinking,  the  quotation 
is  called  INDIRECT  (  Oratio  obliqua  *). 

515.  In  indirect  discourse  :  — 

(1.)  All  subordinate  verbs  are  put  in  the  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

(2.)  The  main  verb  is  put  in  the  INFINITIVE,  except 
that  — 

(3.)  Imperatives  are  put  in  the  SUBJUNCTIVE,  and  hor- 
tatory and  dubitative  subjunctives  retain  their  mood. 

Thus :  — 

Dicit  hie  sibi  ndn  placere,  quod  quaedam  ndn  invenian- 
tur,  quibus  sibi  opus  sit,  he  says  he  does  not  like  it  here,  be- 
cause certain  things  of  which  he  has  need  are  not  found  (illi 
ndn  placet,  quod  .  .  .  ndn  inveniuntur,  quibus  el  opus  est). 

Dixit  se  ndn  credere ;  an  fieri  id  posse,  he  said  he  did  not 
believe  it ;  or  could  this  be  done  ?  (ndn  credo  ;  an  fieri  id 
potest  ?) 

Dicit  aleam  iactam  esse ;  quid  f aciat  ?  statim  proficis- 
cantur  exercitusque  sequatur,  he  says  the  die  is  cast ;  what 
can  he  do  ?  let  them  start  at  once  and  let  the  army  follow  (dlea 
iacta  est ;  quid  f aciam  ?  statim  proficisciminl  exercitusque 
sequatur). 

516.  If  the  verb  of  saying  or  thinking  upon  which  an 
indirect  discourse  depends  denotes  PAST  time  (i.  e.,  is  im- 
perfect, historical  perfect,  or  pluperfect),  the  dependent 
clauses,  as  a  rule,  are  all  thrown  into  the  past  (i.  e.,  the 
imperfect  and  pluperfect  subjunctive  f).     Thus  :  — 

INDIRECT.  DIRECT. 

1.  Ad  haec  Ariovistus  respondit: 

lus  esse  belli,  ut,  qui  vi-  "  lus  est  belli,  ut,  qui  vi- 

cissent,  Us  quds  vicissent,        cerint,    Us   quds   vicerint, 
quern   ad    modum    vellent,        quern   ad    modum    {volant}' 

*  Direct  Discourse  is  called  in  Latin  Oratio  recta. 

t  These  tenses,  therefore,  do  not  always  imply  non-fulfillment  in  condi- 
tional clauses  quoted,  but  often  merely  indicate  that  a  supposed  case  is 
thrown  into  the  past. 


318 


SYNTAX. 


imperarent :  item  populum 
Romanum  i'ict~is  ndn  ad  alter 
rlus  praescrlptum,  sedad  suum 
arbitrium  imperare  consu- 
esse.  Si  ipse  populo  Roma- 
no ndn  praescriberet,  quern 
ad  modum  sud  iure  uteretur, 
non  oportere  sese  a  populo 
Romano  in  suo  iure  impedlrl. 
Haedu5s  sibl  quoniam  belli 
fortunam  temptassent  et 
armls  congressi  ,dc  superatl 
essent,  stipendiari5s  esse 
factos.  jblayncim  Caesarem 
iniuriam  facere,  qul  suo  ad- 
ventu  vectlgalia  sibl  deteri- 
ora  faceret.  Haedius  se  ob- 
sides  redditurum  non  esse, 
neque  Us  neque  eorum  socils 
iniuria  bellum  illaturum, 
si  in  eo  manerent  quod 
convenissent  stipendiumque 
quotanms  penderent ;  si  id 
non  f ecissent,  longe  its  fra- 
ternum  ndmen  populi  Romarii 
afuturum.  Quod  sibl  Cae- 
sar denuntiaret.  se  Haedu- 
drum  iniurias  non  neglectu- 
rum,  neminem  secum  sine 
siia  pernicie  contendisse. 
Cum  vellet,  congrederetur : 
intellecturuni.  quid  invicti 
Germam,  exercitatissiml  in 
armls,  qui  inter  annos  quatr 
tuordecim  tectum  non  subis- 
sent,  virtute  possent. 


imperent:  item  populus  R5- 
manus  victls  non  ad  alterlus 
praescriptum,  sed  ad  suum 
arbitrium  imperare  consue- 
vit.  Si  ego  populo  Romano 
non  praescrib5.  quern  ad  mo- 
dum suo  [are  utatur,  iwn 
oportet  me  a  populo  Ro- 
mdno  in  meo  iure  impedlrl. 
Haedui  mini,  quoniam  belli 
fortunam  temptarunt  et  ar- 
mls congressi  ac  superatl 
sunt,  stipendiaril  sunt  f  ao 
ti.  Magnam  tu,  Caesar. 
iniuriam  facis,  qui  tuo  ad- 
ventu  vectlgalia  mini  deteri- 
ora  facis.  Haeduls  obsides 
non  reddam,  neque  Us  neque 
eorum  socils  iniuria  bellum 
illaturus  sum,  si  in  eo 

{SbSM  Vuod  convene- 
runt  stipendiumque  quotan- 

n~ls  IplSdSth  sl  id  ^n  fe- 
cerint,  lonye  us  fraternum 
ndmen  populi  Romanl  aberit. 
Quod  mini  denuntias,  te 
Haedudrum  i-nlurias  non  ne- 
glect urum,  nemo  mecum 
sine  sua  pernicie  contendit. 
Cum  j  JJjjJ!'  [  congredere :  in- 
telleges,  qul<l  incictl  Ger- 
manl*  exercitatissiml  in  ar- 
mls, qui  inter  annds  quattuor- 
decim  tectum  ndn  {SSSS*} 
virtute  possint  (Caes.,  B.  G., 


INDIRECT   DISCOURSE.  319 

2.  Quod  si  veteris  contume-  2.  Quod  si  veteris  contu- 
liae  obllulscl  vellet,  num  meliae  obllvlscl,  velim,  num 
etiam  recentium  iniuriarum,  etiam  recentium  iniuriarum, 
quod  eo  invlto  iter  per  pro-  quod  me  invlto  iter  per  pro- 
vinciam  per  vim  temptas-  vinciam  per  vim  temptastis, 
sent,  quod  Haeduos,  quod  quod  Haeduos,  quod  Ambar- 
Ambarrds,  quod  Allobrogas  ros,  quod  Allobrogas  vexa- 
vexassent,  memoriam  depo-  stis,  memoriam  deponere 
nere  posse  ?  Quod  sua  vie-  { {J^^ }  ?  Quod  vestra  vic- 
toria tarn  Insolenter  gloria-  toria  tarn  msolenter  glori- 
rentur  quodque  tarn  diu  se  amini  quodque  tarn  diu  vos 
impune  tidisse  iniurids  ad-  impune  tulisse  iniurias  ad- 
mirarentur,  eddem  perti-  miramini,  eddem  pertinet 
nere.  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  14). 

3.   Caesar  ad  Lingonas  litteras  nuntiosque  misit : 

Ne  eds  frumento  neve  alia         Ne  eos  frumento  neve  alia 

re   iuvarent ;    qul  si  iuvis-    re    iuveritis ;    si    itiveritis 

sent  se  eddem  loco  quo  Hel-    vos  eddem  loco  quo  Helvetios 

vetios,  habiturum.  habebo  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  26). 

NOTE.  For  the  convenience  of  the  pupil  the  following  translation  of  the 
indirect  form  of  the  above  passages  is  subjoined :  — 

1.  To  this  Ariovistus  made  answer,  that  it  was  the  right  of 
war  for  those  who  had  conquered  to  lay  upon  those  whom  they 
had  conquered  such  commands  as  they  pleased  ;  the  Roman 
people  likewise  were  in  the  habit  of  laying  commands  upon  the 
conquered  not  at  another's  dictation,  but  according  to  their  own 
judgment.  If  he  did  not  dictate  to  the  Roman  people  how  they 
were  to  use  their  rights,  he  ought  not  to  be  interfered  with  by 
the  Roman  people  in  the  exercise  of  his  rights.  The  Haeduans 
had  been  made  his  tributaries  since  they  had  tried  the  fortune  of 
war  and  had  been  met  and  defeated  in  battle.  That  Caesar 
was  guilty  of  a  great  wrong  in  that  by  his  arrival  he  was  di- 
minishing his  revenues  from  tribute.  He  was  not  going  to  re- 
store the  Haeduans'  hostages  to  them,  nor  did  he  intend  to  make 
war  upon  them  or  their  allies  wrongfully  [as  he  would  be 


320  SYNTAX. 

doing  in  case  he  attacked  them]  if  they  stood  by  their  agree- 
ment and  paid  their  tribute  yearly;  if  they  did  not  do  this, 
they  would  find  the  name  of  brethren  given  them  by  the  Ro- 
man people  very  far  from  being  of  advantage  to  them.  As  to 
Caesar's  threatening  him  that  he  would  not  disregard  injuries 
done  to  the  Haeduans  [he  would  say]  that  no  one  had  fought 
with  him  without  bringing  destruction  upon  himself  ;  he  might 
come  to*  an  engagement  whenever  he  pleased,  and  would  find 
out  what  the  unconquerable  Germans,  who  were  thoroughly 
trained  soldiers  and  had  not  lived  under  a  roof  for  fourteen 
years,  could  accomplish  in  bravery. 

2.  But  if  he  should  be  willing  to  forget  the  insults  of  long 
standing,  could  he  also  lay  aside  the  remembrance  of  the  recent 
wrongs  they  had  done,  in  that  they  had  tried  to  force  a  way 
through  our  province   against  his  will,   and  had  harassed  the 
Haeduans,  the  Ambarri,  and  the  Allobroges  ?     Their  boasting 
so  arrogantly  of  the  victory  they  had  won  and  their  surprise 
at  having  inflicted  injuries  so  long  without  rousing  vengeance 
pointed  in  the  same  direction. 

3.  Caesar  sent  a  letter  and  messengers  to  the  Lingones,  saying 
that  they  were  not  to  aid  them  with  grain  or  anything  else  ;  if 
they  did  aid  them,  he  should  regard  them  as  on  a  par  with  the 
Helvetians. 

a.  Sometimes  when  the  verb  on  which  the  Indirect  Discourse 
depends  is  in  a  past  tense  a  subordinate  subjunctive  is  retained 
in  the  present  tense,  thus  giving  a  more  lively  effect.  Thus  :  — 

Ad  haec  Q.  Marcius  respondit:  ab  armis  discedant,  Ro- 
mam  supplices  proficiscantur,  to  this  Quintus  Marcius 
answered,  let  them  withdraw  from  arms  and  go  as  suppliants  to 
Rome  ;  ei  legatwni  Ariovistus  respondit :  si  quid  ipsl  a  Cae- 
sar e  opus  esset  sese  ad  eum  venturum  fuisse  ;  si  quid  ille  a 
se  velit  ilium  ad  se  venire  oportere,  to  this  embassy  Ariovistus 
made  answer,  that  if  he  had  needed  anything  from  Caesar  he 
would  have  gone  to  him ;  if  Caesar  wanted  anything  of  him  he 
[also]  ought  to  come  to  him  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  34).  Cf.  also 
chapters  14  and  31  of  the  same  book. 


INDIRECT   DISCOURSE.  321 

NOTE.  By  thus  using-  the  present  tense  the  writer  brings,  for  the  mo- 
ment, the  time  when  the  thing  was  originally  said  up  to  the  time  when  it 
is  quoted.  Such  a  construction  represents  a  sort  of  half-way  stage  between 
completely  direct  and  completely  indirect  quotation.  For  a  still  more 
marked  fusion  of  the  time  when  a  speech  was  made  with  the  time  at 
which  it  is  quoted  see  ch.  40  of  the  same  book  :  factum  eius  kostis  perl- 
culum  patrum  nostrorum  memwid,  cum,  Cimbrls  et  Teutonls  a  C.  Mario 
pulsis,  non  minorem  laudem  exercitus  quam  ipse  imperdtor  meritus  vidS- 
batur,  that  trial  was  made  of  that  enemy  within  the  memory  of  our 
fathers,  when  the  Cimbri  and  Teutones  were  routed  by  Gaius  Marius  and 
the  army  seemed  to  have  earned  as  much  glory  as  the  general  himself. 
The  clause  cum  .  .  .  videbdtur  is  taken  out  of  the  indirect  discourse  and 
said,  as  it  were,  to  the  reader. 

b.  Of  the  three  verbs    of  saying,  died  most  commonly   in- 
troduces indirect  discourse,  but  may  also  introduce  direct  dis- 
course ;  aid  is  used  almost  exclusively  for  indirect  discourse,  ex- 
cept in  the  phrase  "  ut  ait  Ennius,  Cicero,  etc.  ;"  inquam  is 
used    only  for  direct  discourse,  and  always  stands  after  some 
word  or  phrase  of  the  quotation  ;  as,  "sets  me,"  inquam,  "  idem 
senttre,"  "  you  know,"  said  I,  "  that  I  hold  the  same  opinion." 

c.  Short  direct  questions  like  quid  creditis  ?  are  generally  put 
in  the  subjunctive  in  indirect  discourse  rather  than  in  the  infini- 
tive ;  quid  crederent,  not  quid  credere.     (Cf.  Liv.,  vi.,  37,  6.) 

d.  Relative  clauses  in  which  the  relative  is  equivalent  to  a 
demonstrative  and  connective  (cf.  451)  have  the  force  of  inde- 
pendent clauses,  and  are  generally  put  in  the  infinitive,  in  indi- 
rect discourse.     Thus :  — 

Unumquemque  nostrum  [censeni]  eius  mundi  esse  partem  ; 
ex  quo  illud  ndturd  consequi.  ut,  etc.,  each  one  of  us,  they 
think,  is  a  part  of  that  universe  :  from  which  it  naturally  follows 
that,  etc.  (Cic.,  Fin.,  iii.,  19,  64)  ;  quibus  proelils  calamitdti- 
busque  fractos  .  .  .  coactos  esse  Sequanis  obsides  dare,  and 
that,  broken  by  these  battles  and  disasters,  they  had  been 
obliged  to  give  hostages  to  the  Sequani  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  i.,  31). 

So  also  sometimes  other  clauses  which  are  dependent  in  form 
but  independent  in  force  ;  as  :  — 

Saepe  dictum  est,  ut  mare,  quod  sud  ndturd  tranquillum  sit, 


322  SYNTAX. 

ventdrum  vi  agitari  atque  turbari,  sic  populum  Rdnianum, 
etc.,  it  has  often  been  said  that  as  the  sea,  which  in  its  own  na- 
ture is  peaceful,  is  roused  and  put  in  commotion  by  the  force  of 
the  winds,  so  the  Roman  people,  etc.  (Cic.,  Clu.,  49,  138). 

e.  Comparative  clauses  after  quam  more  commonly  appear  in 
the  infinitive  (when  the  clause  containing  the  other  term  of  the 
comparison  has  the  infinitive),  but  sometimes  they  have  the  sub- 
junctive with  or  without  ut.  Thus  :  — 

Addit  etiam  se  prius  occisum  iri  ab  eo  quam  me  violatum 
iri,  he  adds  also  that  he  would  allow  himself  to  be  killed  by  him 
sooner  than  have  me  injured  (Cic.,  Att.,  ii.,  20,  2)  ;  se  miliens 
morituros  pot.ius  quam  ut  tantum  dedecoris  admitfi  patian- 
tur,  that  they  would  die  a  thousand  times  rather  than  suffer 
such  disgraceful  action  to  be  taken  (Liv.,  iv.,  2,  8). 

NOTE.  Cicero  prefers  the  infinitive,  Livy  the  subjunctive  alone  or  with 
ut;  Caesar  has  the  infinitive  and  the  subjunctive  without  ut. 

f.  Subordinate  clauses  (mostly  relative)   may  be  retained  in 
the  indicative  if  they  contain  explanatory  statements  which  are 
true  independent  of  the  quotation,  or  are  merely  a  part  of  the 
definition  of  something  mentioned.     Thus  :  — 

Per  exploratores  certior  factus  est  ex  ea  parte  vlci,  quam 
Gall'is  concesserat,  omnes  noctu  discessisse,  he  was  informed 
by  spies  that  everybody  had  left  by  night  the  part  of  the  village 
which  he  had  given  up  to  the  Gauls  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  iii.,  2)  ;  quis 
pot  est  esse  tarn  praeceps  qul  neget  haec  omnia  quae  videmus 
deorum  potestate  administrarl,  who  can  be  so  rash  as  to  deny 
that  all  this  world  we  see  about  us  is  regulated  by  the  power  of 
gods  ?  (Cic.,  Cat.,  iii.,  9,  2l). 

g.  Sometimes  in  the  same  quotation  a  change  is  made  from 
indirect  to  direct  discourse.     Thus  :  — 

Tall  modo  accusatus  ad  haec  respondit :  quod  castra  mo- 
visset,  factum  inopia  pabuTi.  .  .  .  "Hacc  ut  intellegatis"  in- 
quit  "sincere  a  me  pronuntiari,  audlte  Rdmarios  m/ilites" 
accused  in  this  fashion,  he  made  answer  to  the  accusation,  that  as 
to  his  having  moved  his  camp,  this  was  due  to  want  of  fodder.  .  .  . 
"  And  that  you  may  know  that  I  am  sincere  in  saying  this," 


INDIRECT   DISCOURSE.  323 

said  he,  "listen  to  [the  testimony  of  these]  Roman  soldiers" 
(Caes.,  B.  £.,  vii.,  20). 

517.  CONDITIONS  CONTRARY  TO  FACT  undergo  a  slight 
change  of  form  in  indirect  discourse,  as  follows :  — 

(1.)  In  the  active  voice  generally  the  apodosis,  if  im- 
perfect subjunctive,  becomes  future  infinitive  (i.  e.,  fac- 
turum,  etc.,  esse)  ;  if  pluperfect,  it  becomes  facturum, 
etc.,fuisse.  Thus :  — 

\_Titurius  clamitabat~]  neque  aliter  Carnutes  interficiendl 
Tasgetl  consilium  fuisse  captur5s,  neque  Eburones,  si  ille 
adesset,  tanta  cum  contemptione  nostrl  ad  castra  ventures 
esse,  Titurius  kept  crying  out  that  otherwise  the  Carnutes 
would  not  have  formed  the  plan  of  slaying  Tasgetius,  and  that 
the  Eburones,  if  he  were  there,  would  not  come  to  camp  with 
such  marked  contempt  for  us  (Caes.,  B.  6r.,  v.,  29)  ;  an  censes 
me  tantos  labores  suscepturum  fuisse,  si  isdemfmibus  glo- 
riam  meam  quibus  vltam  essem  terminaturus,  or  do  you  sup- 
pose I  should  have  taken  such  toils  upon  myself  if  I  had  ex- 
pected to  bound  my  glory  by  the  same  limits  as  my  life  ?  (Cic., 
Sen.,  23,  82). 

(2.)  In  the  passive  voice  regularly,  and  in  the  active 
occasionally,  the  circumlocution  futurum  esse  (fore)  ut 
is  used  for  present  conditions  contrary  to  fact,  futurum 
fuisse  ut  for  past  conditions.  The  subjunctive  used  with 
this  ut  is  then  in  both  cases  imperfect.  Thus  :  — 

Nisi  eo  ipso  tempore  quidam  nuntil  de  Caesaris  victoria 
per  dispositos  equites  essent  adlati,  extstimabant  plerlque  fu- 
turum. fuisse  ut  \_oppidum~]  amitteretur,  most  people 
thought  that  unless  certain  messages  about  Caesar's  victory  had 
been  brought  at  that  very  time  by  horsemen  stationed  at  inter- 
vals for  the  purpose,  the  town  would  have  been  lost  (Caes.,  B. 
<?.,  iii.,  101). 

a.  Occasionally  some  form  of  posse,  debere,  or  the  like,  or  a 
gerundive,  takes  the  place  of  the  future  participle  in  the  above 
expressions.  Thus  :  — 


324  SYNTAX. 

Platdnem  existinio,  si  genus  forense  dlcendl  tractare  voluis- 
set  gravissime  potuisse  dicer e,  I  judge  that  if  Plato  had 
chosen  to  take  up  the  forensic  kind  of  oratory,  he  could  have 
made  a  most  effective  speaker ;  apparet  rion  recipiendum 
f uisse  Tarentum,  nisi  amlssum  foret,  it  would  seem  that  Ta- 
rentum  would  not  have  had  to  be  retaken  if  it  had  not  heen 
lost.  (Cf.  also  477  c.) 

NOTE.  With  regard  to  the  apodoses  of  conditions  other  than  those 
contrary  to  fact  it  should  be  observed  that  the  future  indicative  and  pres- 
ent subjunctive  are  represented  in  the  indirect  discourse  by  the  future  in- 
finitive, the  future  perfect  indicative  and  the  perfect  subjunctive  by  fore 
ut  with  the  perfect  *  subjunctive  in  the  active  voice,  by  the  perfect  parti- 
ciple with /ore  in  passives  and  deponents.  Thus  :  — 

Dlcit  si  roges  se  facturum  esse,  he  says  he  will  (or  would)  do  it  if  you 
ask  (or  should  ask)  him,  —  in  direct  discourse,  si  roges  (rogdbis)  .  .  . 
facial  (faciet). 

Spero  fore  ut  si  negotia  mea  bene  cesserint  mox  ad  vos  redierim,  I  hope 
that  if  my  affairs  turn  out  well,  I  shall  soon  come  back  to  you,  —  in  direct 
discourse,  si  cesserint  .  .  .  redierim  (rediero). 

Hoc  possum  dlcere,  me  satis  adeptum  fore,  «...  nullum  in  me  perlcu- 
lum  redundant,  this  I  can  say,  that  I  shall  have  obtained  enough  if  no 
danger  flows  back  upon  me,  —  in  direct  discourse,  satis  adeptus  ero  (erim) 
...  st  ...  redundant  (Cic.,  SulL,  9,  27). 

Indirect  Questions. 

518.  INDIRECT  QUESTIONS  take  the  subjunctive. 
Thus :  — 

Doce  me,  igitur,  unde  sint.  ub!  sint,  quales  sint,  tell  me, 
then,  whence  [the  gods]  come,  where  they  are,  what  their  nature 
is  (Cic.,  N.  Z>.,i.,  23, 65)  ;  id  utrum  illi  sentiant.  an  vero  si- 
mulent,  tu  intelleges,  you  will  understand  whether  that  is  their 
real  opinion  or  whether  they  are  in  fact  pretending  (Cic.)  ; 
si  qualis  sit  animus,  ipse  animus  nesciet,  if  the  mind  itself 
shall  not  know  what  sort  of  a  thing  the  mind  is  (Cic.,  Ttisc.,  i., 
22,  53). 

a.  The  expressions  nescio  quis,  nescio  quo  modo,  nescio 
unde,  etc.,  are  generally  equivalent  to  "  some  one,"  "  somehow," 

*  Pluperfect  when  the  verb  of  saying  is  past  (see  516). 


INDIRECT   QUESTIONS.  325 

etc.,  and  therefore  having  lost  their  interrogative  force,  have  no 
influence  upon  the  mood  of  the  verb  which  follows  them. 
Thus  :  — 

Sed  casu  nescio  quo  in  ea  tempora  aetas  nostra  inci- 
dit,  but  by  some  chance  my  life  has  fallen  upon  a  time,  etc. 
(Cic.). 

b.  So  also   mirum  quam,  mlrum  quantum,  nimium  quan- 
tum ;  as :  — 

Sales  qul  in  dicendo  nimium  quantum  valent,  wit,  which 
has  some  tremendous  power  in  oratory  (Cic.,  Or.,  26,  87). 

c.  In  early  Latin  the  indicative  was   used  in  indirect  ques- 
tions, and  this  use  frequently  occurs  in  Plautus  and  Terence. 
Thus:  — 

Sclre  void,  quoi  reddidisti,  I  want  to  know  to  whom  you 
gave  it  (Plaut.,  Cure.,  543)  ;  vide  avaritia  quid  facit,  see 
what  greed  does  (Ter.,  Ph.,  358). 

d.  Indirect  questions  are  sometimes,  by  a  development  from 
conditional  clauses  which  also  occurs  in  English,  introduced  by 
si  =  "  if,"  "  whether."     Thus  :  - 

Quaeslvit  iterum  si  cum  Romarils  mllitare  liceret,  his 
second  question  was,  whether  [if]  he  might  serve  in  the  Roman 
army  (Liv.,  xl.,  49,  6)  ;  mlrabar  hoc  si  sic  ablret  et  eri  sem- 
per lenitas  verebar  quorsum  evaderet,  I  wondered  if  [whether] 
this  would  [not]  come  out  so,  and  was  always  apprehensive  as  to 
what  master's  easy  discipline  would  result  in  (Ter.,  An.,  175). 

e.  Sometimes,  especially  in  the  comic  poets,  a  direct  question 
is  repeated  with  surprise  by  the  person  to  whom  it  is  addressed, 
and  thus  becomes  indirect  and  is  put  in  the  subjunctive  depend- 
ing on  the  idea  "  do  you  ask."     Thus  :  — 

Quid  nunc  faciundum  censes  ?  Tr.  Ego  quid  censeam  ? 
What  do  you  think  ought  to  be  done  now  ?  Tr.  What  do  I 
think?  (Plaut.,  Most.,  556). 

NOTE.  Indirect  questions  are  not  to  be  confounded  with  dependent  rel- 
ative clauses,  though  sometimes  the  form  is  the  same.  Thus :  — 

Dicam  quae  sentiam  (interrogative)  =  quae  sentio?  dicam,  What  do  I 


326 


SYNTAX. 


think  ?  I  will  tell ;  dicam  quae  sentiam  (relative)  =  dlcam  ea  quae  sentio 
or  sentiam,  I  will  say  the  things  I  think. 

For  the  use  of  the  interrogative  particles  in  indirect  questions,  see  579  ff. 

Causal  Glauses  with  Quod,  Quia,  Quonlam. 

519.  In  causal  clauses  with  quod  or  quia*  "  because," 
and  quoniam,)  "  since,"  the  indicative  simply  asserts  (or 
denies)  one  thing  as  the  cause  or  reason  of  another ;  the 
subjunctive  represents  the  cause  as  one  assigned  by  some 
one  other  than  the  speaker  or  writer,  —  generally  by  the 
subject  of  the  main  clause. 

NOTE.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  the  subjunctive  does  not  deny  (even  by 
implication)  that  the  reason  given  is  the  true  one.  On  the  contrary,  the 
subjunctive  may  be  used  of  that  which  the  speaker  believes  to  be  the  cause 
of  an  action,  but  which  he  does  not  wish  to  state  positively  as  such. 


INDICATIVE. 

It  a  fit  ut  adsint  prop- 
terea,  quod  offi?ium  sequon- 
tur,  taceant  autem,  idcirco 
quia  periculum  vitant.  so 
they  are  here  because  they  are 
thus  performing  a  duty,  but 
they  are  silent  for  the  reason 
that  they  shun  danger  (Cic., 
Rose.  Am.,  1,  i). 

Quod  spiratis,  quod  vo- 
cem  mlttitis,  quod  formas 
hominum  habetis.  indiynan- 
tur,  they  are  angry  because 
you  breathe  and  speak  and 
have  the  shapes  of  men  (Llv., 
iv.,  3,  8). 

Qiio  quidem  etiam  magis 
sum  exercitus,  non  quia  mul- 


SuBJUNcrrvE. 

Laud  at  Africanum  Pcu- 
naetius,  quod  fuerit  absti- 
wens,  Panaetius  praises  Africa- 
nus  for  his  self-control  (Cic., 
Off.,  ii,  22,  76). 

An  pmnitet  vos  quod  sal- 
vom  exercitum  traduxerim? 
do  ye  regret  my  having  brought 
the  army  over  in  safety  ?  (Caes., 
B.  C.,  ii.,  32). 

Bene  inawres  accubitionem 
epularem  amworum,  quia  vi- 
tae  coniunctionem  haberet, 
convwium  riominaveru?it,  our 
ancestors  did  well  in  giving  to 
the  reclining  of  friends  together 
at  a  banquet  the  name  "  convi- 
vium,"  a  living  together,  from 


*  Quod  is  much  commoner  than  quia  or  quoniam,  especially  with  the  sub- 
junctive, 


CAUSAL   CLAUSES.  327 

tis   debe5,    sed    quia    saepe  its   involving   a  community  of 

concurrunt,  etc.,  therefore  I  life  (Cic.,  Sen*,  13,  45). 

am   even  more    exercised,  not  Regrio    non    aequo    animo 

because  I  am  indebted  to  many  carebas ;  est  autem   impudens 

people,  but  because  there  often  luctus  maerore  se  conficientis, 

come     together,      etc.     (Cic.,  quod  imperare  non  liceat  11- 

Planc.,  32,  78).  beris,  you  did   not   bear  with 

Yds,     Quirltes,     quoniam  calmness   the    loss    of    power. 

iam  nox  est,  in  vestra  tecta  But  his  grief  is  shameless  who 

discedite,  do  you,  fellow  citi-  consumes  himself , with  sadness 

zens,   since   the  night   is   now  because  he  may  not  have  sway 

come,    depart   to    your  houses  over  freemen  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  iii., 

(Cic.,  Cat.,  iii.,  12,  29).  12,  26). 

lactatum  in  condicionibus  nequtquam  de  Tarquinils  in 
regnum  restituendis,  magis  quia  id  negare  ipse  nequiverat 
Tarquinils,  quam  quod  negatum  Iri  sibi  ab  Romanis  ignora- 
ret,  mention  was  made  in  the  terms  —  though  to  no  purpose  — 
of  restoring  the  Tarquins  to  the  throne,  more  because  he  had 
himself  been  unable  to  refuse  that  to  the  Tarquins,  than  be- 
cause he  did  not  know  well  enough  that  the  Romans  would 
reject  the  proposition  (Liv.,  ii.,  13,  3). 

520.  Died,  puto,  etc.,  are  sometimes  put  in  the  sub- 
junctive in  a  causal  clause,  when  the  reason  is  really  con- 
tained in  an  infinitive  dependent  upon  them.  Thus  :  — 

Cum  enim  Hannibalis  permissu  exlsset  de  castrls,  rediit 
paulo  post,  quod  se  oblitu'm  nescio  quid  diceret,  for  when 
he  had  gone  out  from  the  camp  with  Hannibal's  permission,  he 
returned  a  little  later  because,  as  he  said,  he  had  forgotten 
something  (Cic.,  Off.,  i.,  13,  40)  ;  qul  istinc  veniunt,  superbiam 
tuam  accusant,  quod  negent  te  percontantibus  respondere, 
those  who  come  from  there  criticise  your  arrogance  because,  as 
they  say,  you  do  not  answer  people  who  question  you  (Cic., 
Fam.,  vii.,  16,  3)  ;  ex  his  Bellovacl  suum  numerum  non 
compleverunt,  quod  se  sud  nomine  atque  arbitrio  cum  Ro- 
mariis  bellum  gesturos  dicerent,  of  these  the  Bellovaci  did 


328  SYNTAX. 

not  fill  out  their  contingent,  because,  as  they  said,  they  were 
going  to  fight  with  the  Romans  on  their  own  account  and  under 
their  own  direction  (Caes.,  B.  G.,  vii.,  75). 

521.  The  subjunctive  is  used  with  non  quod  and  nan 
quo,  meaning  "  not  that "   (not  because),  negative  non 
quod   non,    non    quo   non,    non   quln    (not   but   that).* 
Thus :  — 

Etsl  n5n  idcirco  eorum  usum  dimiseram,  quod  iis  suo 
censerem  sed  quod  eorum  me  subpudebat,  although  I  had  not 
given  up  their  intimacy  because  I  was  angry  with  them  but 
because  I  was  rather  ashamed  of  them  (Cic.,  Fatn.,  ix.,  1,  2)  ; 
non  quo  mea  quidem  iam  intersit  .  .  .  sed,  etc.,  not  that  it 
makes  a  difference  to  me  any  longer  .  .  .  but,  etc.  (Cic.,  de  Or., 
ii.,  18,  74)  ;  etsl  eo  te  adhuc  consilw  usum  intellego,  ut  id 
reprehendere  non  audeam,  non  quin  ab  eo  ipse  dissentiam, 
sed  quod  ea  te  sapientid  esse  iudico,  although  I  see  that  you 
have  thus  far  adopted  a  course  which  I  should  not  venture  to 
criticise,  not  that  I  do  not  myself  hold  a  different  view,  but  be- 
cause I  have  such  confidence  in  your  wisdom  (Cic.,  Fain.,  iv., 
7,1). 

For  qw>d  =  "  the  fact  that,"  introducing  substantive  clauses,  see 
540,4. 

Clauses  giving  the  Thought  of  Another. 

522.  The  subjunctive  is  used  to  represent  the  thing 
said  in  a  subordinate  clause  as  something  in  the  mind  of  a 
person  other  than  the  speaker  or  writer,  —  generally  the 
subject  of  the  main  clause  (implied  indirect  discourse). 
Thus :  — 

Paetus  omiws  libros  quos  frdter  suus  reliquisset,  mihi 
donavit,  Paetus  gave  me  all  the  books  which  his  brother  had 
left  \_i.  e.,  he  was  influenced  to  give  them  by  the  fact  that  his 

*  Non  quia,  non  quia  won,  are  also  used,  but  are  very  rare  in  classical 
Latin.  Occasionally  all  of  these  conjunctions,  except  non  quo,  non  quo  non, 
are  found  with  an  indicative,  thus  marking  the  reason  distinctly  as  the 
actual  one. 


SUBJUNCTIVE   BY   ATTRACTION.  329 

brother,  etc.]  (Cic.,  Att.,  ii.,  1,  12) ;  Darius,  dum  ipse  abes- 
set,  pontis  custodes  rellquit  prlncipes,  quos  secum  ex  Ionia 
diixerat,  Darius  left  as  guards  of  the  bridge  while  he  should  be 
absent,  chieftains  whom  he  had  brought  with  him  from  Ionia ; 
Agesilaus  multo  gloriosius  duxit,  si  mstitutis  patriae  paru- 
isset  quam  si  bello  superasset  Asiam,  Agesilaus  thought 
it  a  much  more  glorious  thing  if  he  obeyed  the  established 
laws  of  his  country  than  if  he  conquered  Asia  in  war  (cf,  Nep., 
Ages.,  4). 

Subjunctive  by  Attraction. 

523.  A  clause  depending  upon  a  subjunctive  (or  an 
infinitive),  and  denoting  something  which  may  be  re- 
garded as  an  integral  part  of  the  thought  expressed  in 
the  clause  on  which  it  depends,  generally  takes  the  sub- 
junctive, though,  except  for  such  dependence,  it  would 
take  the  indicative.  Thus  :  — 

Mds  est  Athenls  laudari  in  contione  eos,  qui  sint  in  proe- 
lils  interfecti,  it  is  customary  at  Athens  for  a  eulogy  to  be 
delivered  in  the  public  assembly  over  those  who  have  been 
killed  in  battle  (Cic.,  Or.,  44,  151)  ;  in  Hortensio  memoria 
fuit  tanta,  ut,  quae  secum  commentatus  esset,  ea  sine  scripto 
verbls  elsdem  redder et,  quibus  cogitavisset,  Hortensius  had 
such  a  powerful  memory,  that  without  having  written  them 
down  he  could  give  expression  to  the  things  he  had  turned  over 
in  his  mind,  using  the  same  words  in  which  he  had  thought 
them  (cf.  Cic.,  Brut.,  88,  30l)  ;  fwbat  ut  Alcibiades  omnium 
oculos,  quotienscumque  in  publicum  prodisset,  ad  se  con- 
verteret,  Alcibiades  used  to  attract  the  gaze  of  all  the  people 
every  time  he  went  out. 

NOTE.  The  uses  of  the  subjunctive  given  in  the  last  two  paragraphs 
(522  and  523)  are  merely  varieties  of  some  of  the  more  general  uses 
treated  above.  In  many  cases  they  might  be  explained  as  Characteristic 
subjunctives.  It  is,  however,  worth  while  to  put  them  into  separate  cate- 
gories, because  the  considerations  given  show  the  reason  why  the  subjunc- 
tive is  chosen  in  the  given  case,  while  in  cases  otherwise  similar,  but  in 
which  these  considerations  are  not  present,  the  indicative  is  often  found 
where  a  Characteristic  subjunctive  might  be  expected. 


330  SYNTAX. 

TENSES  OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  the  tenses  in  subjunctive 
clauses  should  be  observed  :  — 

524.  When  the  thing  said  has  really  the  nature  of  an 
occurrence  (although  it  is  expressed,  as  far  as  the  mood 
goes,  simply  as  an  idea),  the  tenses  of  the  subjunctive 
mark  practically  *  the  same  differences  of  time  as  the 
tenses  of  the  indicative. 

a.  This  is  the  case  with  — 

(1.)  Clauses  of  Result. 

(2.)  Temporal  Clauses  (and  those  developed  from  them). 

(3.)  Clauses  of  Concession,  with  qiiamvls,  licet,  etc. 

(4.)  The  constructions  of  Indirect  Discourse.     Thus  :  — 

Socrates  tain  sapiens  erat  ut  hodie  quoque  honoretur,  So- 
crates was  so  wise  that  he  is  honored  even  to-day  ;  tarn  acriter 
pugnaverunt  ut  paene  omnes  occiderentur,  they  fought  so 
desperately  that  nearly  all  were  slain  ;  haec  verba  ita  excel- 
lent ia  siint  ut  deo  alicui  tribuerentur,  these  words  are  so 
admirable  that  they  used  to  be  attributed  to  some  god. 

Cum,  Atheius  essem,  Zenonem  saepe  audiebam,  when  I  was 
at  Athens  I  often  heard  Zeno. 

Hoc  dicit  quod  verum  sit,  he  says  this  because  it  is,  as  he 
thinks,  true.  f 

525.  But  in  the  various  constructions  of  indirect  dis- 
course, if  the  word  upon  which  a  subjunctive  depends  re- 
fers to  past  time,  the  subjunctive  is  regularly  drawn  into 
the  same  time  (i.  e.,  is  made  imperfect  or  pluperfect). 
Thus  :  — 

Turn  ostendit  quanta  esset  vis  conscientiae,  then  he  showed 

*  In  these  uses  the  subjunctive  has  lost  its  modality  and  gained  in  tense 
quality  (as  has  been  said  in  483,  c,  with  the  note  before  and  after),  but, 
scientifically  speaking1,  this  exchange  was  never  quite  complete  enough  to 
make  the  tense  quality  of  this  mood  absolutely  identical  with  that  of  the 
indicative. 


TENSES   OF  THE  SUBJUNCTIVE.  331 

how  great  the  power  of  consciousness  of  guilt  is ;  his  mos  erat 
omnes  qul  ad  Insulam  ipsorum  accessissent  statim  interfici, 
these  people  had  the  custom  of  immediately  killing  all  who  ap- 
proached their  island ;  laudabat  Africanum  Panaetius  quod 
abstinens  esset,  Panaetius  used  to  praise  Africanus  for  his  self- 
control. 

NOTE.  This  tendency  arises,  perhaps,  from  a  desire  for  symmetry  of  ex- 
pression. The  same  thing  is  occasionally  shown  in  dependent  indicative 
clauses  (see  470,  3),  and  is  at  the  bottom  of  the  so-called  subjunctive  by 
attraction.  A  similar  attraction  of  tense  occurs  in  English  also,  though 
not  with  the  same  regularity  as  in  Latin.  See  the  second  example  above. 
Also  compare  with  each  other  the  two  forms  in  which  each  of  the  follow- 
ing sentences  may  be  expressed  :  — 

That  battle  showed  what  unaided  valor  CAN  do. 

That  battle  showed  what  unaided  valor  COULD  do. 

If  he  were  here,  he  would  do  what  the  occasion  DEMANDS. 

If  he  were  here,  he  would  do  what  the  occasion  DEMANDED. 

526.  When  the  thing  said  is  not  thought  of  as  an 
occurrence  at  all,  but  only  as  an  idea  in  the  mind  of  the 
speaker  or  writer,  the  primary  tenses  of  the  subjunctive 
are  used  in  speaking  of  a  present  (or  future)  situation, 
the  secondary  tenses  in  speaking  of  a  past  situation.  The 
perfect  and  pluperfect  differ  from  the  present  and  imper- 
fect only  in  their  implication  of  completed  action. 

a.  This  is  the  case  with  :  — 

(1.)   Subjunctives  in  Independent  Sentences.* 

(2.)  Conditional  clauses  *  (including  Concessions  and  Com- 
parisons). 

(3.)  Clauses  of  Purpose  (whether  pure  purpose  or  substan- 
tive clauses). 

Thus,  hand  facile  discernas,  like  the  English  "  you  cannot 
easily  tell,"  applies  to  a  present  situation;  hand  facile  discer- 
neres,  like  "  you  could  not  easily  tell,"  applies  to  a  past  situa- 
tion. So,  hunc  librum  tibi  do,  ut  eum  legas,  I  give  you  this 

*  The  use  of  the  imperfect  subjunctive  to  denote  a  wish  or  a  supposi- 
tion unfulfilled  in  present  time  is  only  an  apparent  exception,  and  has  been 
sufficiently  treated  in  473,  a,  and  477,  a. 


332  SYNTAX. 

book  to  read,  indicates  a  present  purpose ;  hunc  librum  tibi  dedi, 
ut  eum  legeres,  implies  a  past  purpose  (t.  e.,  what  was  the  pur- 
pose at  the  time  of  giving). 

NOTE.  In  these  uses,  as  there  is  no  question  of  the  occurrence  of  any- 
thing, there  is  no  definite  time  relation  to  the  moment  of  speaking  or 
writing,  as  when  the  indicative  is  used,  or  as  there  is  (by  implication)  in 
the  cases  treated  under  524,  and  the  mood  quality  of  the  subjunctive  is 
much  more  marked  than  its  tense  quality. 

IMPERATIVE  MOOD. 

527.  The  IMPERATIVE  MOOD  is  used  to  express  directly 
commands-)  requests,  and  advice.     Thus  :  — 

Hue  ades,  come  here  (Verg.,  Ed.,  2,  45). 
Nosce  te,  know  thyself  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  22,  52). 
Aequam  mementd  servare  mentem,  remember  to  keep  an 
unruffled  mind  (Hor.,  Carm.,  ii.,  3,  l). 

a.  The  negative  is  ne  for  "  not,"  neve  for  "  nor  "  or  "  and 
not."     Non  and  neque  are  rare,  and  occur  chiefly  in  poetry. 

b.  The  future  imperative  expresses  the  command,  etc.,  more 
mildly  than  the  present.     But  for  the  missing  present  of  scio, 
memim,  and  of  habeo  meaning  "  think,"  the  future  forms  are 
used  —  scito,  scltote,  memento,  mementote,  habeto,  habetdte. 

c.  The  third  person  of  the  future  occurs  only  in  laws  and 
wills. 

d.  Fac,  fac  ut,  curd  lit,  are  used  with  a  subjunctive  to  ex- 
press a  command  more  strongly ;  velim,  nolim,  mdlim  (cf.  473, 
c,  and  491),  to  express  one  less  strongly,  than  the  imperative. 
The  future  indicative  is  also  sometimes  used,  as  in  English. 

e.  Qum,  why  not,  with  the  present  indicative,  is  sometimes 
equivalent  to  a  command ;  as,  quin  accipis  ?  =  take  it  (lit.,  why 
don't  you  take  it?)  (Ter.,  Heaut.,  832). 

528.  PROHIBITIONS  are  expressed  by  the  present  im- 
perative only  in  poetry,  by  the  future  imperative  only  in 
laws,  wills,  precepts,  etc.     Thus  :  — 

Ne  crede  colori,  trust  not  the  color  (Verg.,  Ed.,  2,  17)  ; 


IMPERATIVE   MOOD.  —  INFINITIVE.  333 

hominem  mortuom  in  urbe  ne  sepelito  neve  urito,  give  nei- 
ther burial  nor  cremation  to  the  dead  within  the  city  (Laws 
of  the  XII.  Tables). 

529.     Otherwise  PROHIBITIONS  take  :  — 

(1.)  In  the  second  person  :  — 

a.  Ne,  with  the  perfect  subjunctive  (for  a  particular  case 
only)  ;  as,  hoc  ne  f eceris,  Marce,  do  not  do  this  thing,  Mar- 
cus. 

b.  Ne,  with  the  present  subjunctive  (for  a  general  case  only)  ; 
as,  hoc  ne  facias,  do  this  not  (i.  e.,  nobody  must  do  it). 

c.  Noll,  with  the  infinitive ;  as,  noil  oblivlsci,  do  not  forget. 

d.  Cave,   with   the   subjunctive ;  as,    cave  festines,   do  not 
hurry. 

e.  Fac  ne,  with  the  subjunctive  (in  colloquial  speech).    Thus : 
fac  ne  quid  aliud  cures,  nisi  ut  convalescas,  do  not  attend 
to  anything  but  the  recovery  of  your  health  (Cic.,  Fam.,  xvi., 
11,  1). 

(2.)  In  the  third  person  :  — 

Ne,  with  the  present  subjunctive ;  as,  donis  impii  ne  pla- 
care  audeant  deos,  let  not  the  wicked  presume  to  try  to  pro- 
pitiate the  gods  with  gifts. 

Compare  also  472,  2,  and  472,  a,  6. 

INFINITIVE. 

NOTE.  The  INFINITIVE  has  the  nature  of  a  noun,  in  that  it  may  he 
used  as  the  subject  or  object  of  various  verbs,  or  in  apposition  with  a  pro- 
noun ;  it  has  the  nature  of  a  verb,  in  that  it  admits  distinctions  of  tense,  is 
modified  by  adverbs,  not  adjectives,  and  like  the  finite  verb  governs  oblique 


SUBJECT  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

530.  The  SUBJECT  of  an  infinitive  is  put  in  the  accu- 
sative. Thus :  — 

Ad  rem  publicam  pertinet  me  conservari,  it  concerns  the 
interests  of  the  state  that  I  should  be  saved  (Cic.) ;  videbat  id 
non  posse  fieri,  he  saw  that  it  could  not  be  done  (Nep.). 


334  SYNTAX. 

a.  But  the  infinitive  is  sometimes  used  in  lively  narration  in- 
stead of  the  (historical)  perfect  indicative,  and  then  its  subject 
is  in  the  NOMINATIVE  (historical  infinitive).  Thus  :  — 

Interim  cottldie  Caesar  Haeduos  frumentum  flagitare, 
meanwhile  Caesar  daily  demanded  grain  of  the  Haeduans 
(Caes.,  B.  Gr.,  1,  16) ;  nos  pavidl  trepidare  metu,  panic- 
stricken  we  hurry  about  in  alarm  (Verg.,  Ae.,  2,  685). 

INFINITIVE  AS  SUBJECT. 

531.  The  infinitive,  either  with  or  without  a  subject, 
may  be  the  SUBJECT  of  a  verb.  Thus :  — 

Difficile  est  amicitiam  manere,  si  a  virtute  defeceris,  it 
is  hard  for  friendship  to  abide,  if  you  fall  from  virtue  (Cic., 
Am.,  11,  37). 

Mains  dedecus  est  parta  amlttere  quam  omriino  rion  para- 
visse,  it  is  a  greater  disgrace  to  lose  what  you  have  acquired 
than  not  to  have  made  any  acquisitions  at  all  (Sail.,  lug.,  31, 
17)  ;  numquam  igitur  est  utUe  peccare,  to  do  wrong  is  there- 
fore never  expedient  (Cic.,  Off.,  iii.,  15,  64). 

a.  The  infinitive  is   used   as    subject  chiefly  with  est,  erat, 
etc.,  and  a  predicate  noun  or  adjective,  or  with  certain  imper- 
sonal verbs,  such  as  libet,  licet,  oportet,  videtur,  piget,  pudet, 
placet,  praestat,  refert,  interest,  convenit,  fugit,  iuvat,  etc.* 

b.  The  infinitive  may  of  course  also  be  equivalent  to  a  pred- 
icate nominative  ;  as  :  — 

Impune  qiiaelibet  facere,  id  est  regem  esse.  to  do  with 
impunity  whatever  one  will,  that  is  to  be  king  (Sail.). 

c.  When  the  infinitive  used  with  licet  and  such  words  has  a 
predicate  adjective   or  noun  with    it,  this  is  generally  put   in 
the  dative,  whether  there    is  a   dative  of   indirect  object   ex- 

*  With  verbs  like  oportet,  which,  strictly  speaking,  have  the  subject  in- 
volved in  the  verb  idea  (t.  e.,  im personals  in  the  narrowest  sense),  the  infin- 
itive is  in  origin  not  a  subject  infinitive  but  a  complementary  infinitive  (see 
532).  These  infinitives,  however,  became  so  fused  with  the  subject  infin- 
itive, and  thereby  lost  their  resemblance  to  other  complementary  infinitives 
so  thoroughly,  that  it  seems  most  practical  to  treat  them  as  is  here  done. 


COMPLEMENTARY   INFINITIVE.  335 

pressed  with  licet  or  not ;  but  sometimes  it  is  put  in  the  accu- 
sative. Thus  :  — 

Licuit  esse  6tios5  Themistocll,  it  was  in  Themistocles' 
power  to  be  inactive  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  15,  33)  ;  sibi  vltam  filiae 
sud  cariorem  fuisse,  si  liberae  ac  pudicae  vlvere  licitum 
fuisset,  [he  said]  that  his  daughter's  life  would  have  been 
dearer  to  him  than  his  own,  if  she  could  have  lived  in  freedom 
and  virtue  (Liv.,  iii.,  50,  6). 

Quod  si  civi  Romano  licet  esse  Graditanum,  and  if  a  Ro- 
man citizen  may  be  [also]  a  citizen  of  Gades  (Cic.,  Ealb.,  12,  29). 

For  the  subjunctive  with  impersonals,  see  494,  a,  and  497. 

COMPLEMENTARY  INFINITIVE. 

532.  The  infinitive  without  a  subject  is  used  with  sev- 
eral classes  of  words  which  require  a  further  action  of  the 
same  subject  to  complete  the  meaning  (complementary 
infinitive).  Thus :  — 

Hoc  qued  dicere,  this  I  can  say  (Cic.,  Sen.,  10,  32) ;  haec 
vitare  cupimus,  this  we  wish  to  avoid  (Cic.)  ;  poetas  omnino 
non  conor  attingere,  I  do  not  attempt  to  touch  the  poets  at  all 
(Cic.,  de  Dr.,  ii.,  14,  61 ). 

a.  Such  are  verbs  denoting  ABILITY,  OBLIGATION,  INTENTION, 
or  ENDEAVOR  ;   also  verbs  meaning  BEGIN,  CONTINUE,  CEASE, 

ABSTAIN,  LEARN  (TO),*  REMEMBER  (TO),*  UNDERSTAND,  DETER- 
MINE, DARE,  BE  AFRAID  (TO),*  HESITATE,  BE  WONT. 

b.  If  a  complementary  infinitive  has  a  predicate  noun  or  ad- 
jective, this  agrees  in  case  with  the  subject  of  the  verb  on  which 
the  infinitive  depends.     Thus  :  — 

Aude  sapiens  esse,  dare  to  be  a  philosopher ;  solet  tristis 
viderl,  he  is  apt  to  seem  sad ;  iubet  eum  virum  esse  audere, 
he  bids  him  dare  to  be  a  man.  Cf.  also  329,  b. 

For  the  subjunctive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  484  ff. 

For  the  infinitive  with  a  subject  after  verbs  of  wishing,  etc.,  see  533,  3. 

*  In  the  meanings  /earn,  remember,  be  afraid,  that  (something)  is  so  and 
so,  these  verbs  of  course  take  other  constructions.  (See  515  ff. ;  also  490, 
and  492). 


"UNIVERSITY 


336  SYNTAX. 

INFINITIVE  AS  OBJECT. 

533.  The  infinitive  with  a  subject  is  used  as  the  OBJECT 
of  certain  classes  of  verbs.  Thus  :  — 

(1.)  With  verbs  of  SAYING,  THINKING,  KNOWING,  PERCEIV- 
ING (verba  sentiendl  et  decldrandl)  ;  as :  — 

Dicit  se  eras  venturum  esse,  he  says  he  will  come  to-mor- 
row ;  centurwties  nihil  temere  agendum  esse  exlstimabant, 
the  centurions  thought  that  nothing  ought  to  be  done  inconsi- 
derately;  audivl  te  venisse,  I  heard  you  had  come;  sentit 
igitur  animus  se  .  .  .  sua  vl,  rion  aliena,  moveri,  the  mind 
therefore  perceives  that  its  activity  is  from  its  own  force,  not 
from  an  outside  force  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  23,  55). 

(2.)  With  verbs  of  DETERMINING,  DECREEING,  and  the  like ; 
as :  — 

Metellus  statuit  olio  more  bellum  gerendum  esse, 
Metellus  determined  that  the  war  must  be  carried  on  in  an- 
other fashion. 

(3.)  With  verbs  of  WISHING  (mostly  when  a  new  subject  is 
introduced),  and  with  iubed  and  veto.  Thus  :  — 

Hoc  velim  intellegi,  I  should  like  to  have  this  understood 
(Cic.)  ;  legati  qiiod  erant  appellafl  superb  his,  Corinthum 
patres  vestrl  .  .  .  exstinctum  esse  voluerunt,  your  fathers 
insisted  on  the  destruction  of  Corinth  because  their  ambas- 
sadors had  been  addressed  rather  arrogantly  (Cic.,  Leg.  Man., 
5,  ll) ;  me  amarl  void,  I  wish  to  be  loved ;  iubet  nos 
Pytkius  Apollo  noscere  nosmet  ipsos,  the  Pythian  Apollo  bids 
ns  know  ourselves  ;  legates  Caesar  discedere  vetuerat,  Cae- 
sar had  forbidden  the  ambassadors  to  depart  (Ca«s-,  B.  G.,  2, 
20). 

(4.)  With  verbs  of  EMOTION  and  FEELING  ;  as  :  — 

Gaudeo  te  salvom  venisse.  I  am  glad  that  you  have  ar- 
rived safely ;  Antonius  se  similem  esse  Catifanae  gloriari 
solebat,  Antonius  used  to  boast  that  he  was  like  Catiline  ;  multl 
peccasse  se  non  anguntur,  oblurgari  moleste  ferunt,  many 


INFINITIVE   WITH   CERTAIN   VERBS.  337 

people  are  not  distressed  that  they  have  done  wrong,  but  take  it 
ill  to  be  found  fault  with ;  miror  *  te  ad  me  nihil  scribere,  I 
wonder  that  you  do  not  write  to  me  at  all. 

(5.)  With  verbs  of  HOPING,  PROMISING,  VOWING,  THREATEN- 
ING, SWEARING,  the  future  infinitive  is  regularly  used.  Thus :  — 

Spero  te  id  facturum  esse,  I  hope  you  will  do  so  ;  promlr 
sit  se  venturum  esse,  he  promised  to  come  ;  totam  se  urbem 
deleturum  esse  minatur,  he  threatens  to  destroy  the  entire 
town ;  numquam  amicum  se  Romania  futurum  esse  iurabat, 
he  swore  he  would  never  be  a  friend  to  the  Romans. 

NOTE.  This  use  of  the  infinitive  is  the  regular  construction  of  indirect 
discourse.  (See  515  ff.) 

For  the  subjunctive  with  some  of  these  verbs,  see  484  ff. 

INFINITIVE  WITH  DICOR,  VIDEOR,  FERTUR,  ETC. 

534.  Several  verbs,  which  in  the  active  take  an  accusa- 
tive and  infinitive,  are  used  personally  in  the  passive 
rather  than  impersonally,!  the  subject-accusative  of  the 
infinitive  thus  becoming  the  subject-nominative  of  the 
finite  verb.  Thus  :  — 

Dicor  vir  probus  esse,  I  am  said  to  be  an  upright  man ; 
vetamur  hoc  f acere,  we  are  forbidden  to  do  this ;  videor 
diem  ilium  videre,  I  seem  to  see  that  day ;  Numae  regnum 
pacatum  esse  traditur,  Numa's  reign  is  said  to  have  been  a 
peaceful  one. 

a.  A  predicate  word  with    the    infinitive    in    this  use    is  of 
course  nominative,  as  in  the  first  example. 

b.  In  poetry,  sometimes  a  predicate  word  is  put  in  the  nomi- 
native   (by   a  Greek   idiom)   after  an    active   verb  of  saying ; 
as:  — 

Phaselus  tile,  quern  videtis,  hospites,  ait  fuisse  navium 
celerrimus,  that  skiff  you  see,  there  yonder,  friends,  doth 
say,  she  was  of  boats  the  swiftest  in  her  day  (Cat.,  4,  l). 

*  Cf .  also  substantive  quod  clauses,  540,  4. 

t  The  impersonal  construction  also  occurs,  but  chiefly  with  the  gerun- 
dive or  perfect  participle. 


338  SYNTAX. 

OTHER  USES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

535.  The  infinitive  (generally  with  the  interrogative 
ne)  is  used  in  EXCLAMATIONS.     Thus :  — 

M ene  incepto  desistere  victam,  I,  defeated,  abandon  my 
undertaking!  (Verg.,  Aen.,  1,  37)  ;  quemquanme  hominem 
in  aninio  instituere,  that  any  man  should  take  the  determi- 
nation !  (Ter.,  Ad.,  38). 

Cf.  the  subjunctive,  with  main  verb  omitted,  482,  rf,  and  492,  c. 

536.  The  infinitive  retains  its  original  use  of  express- 
ing a  PURPOSE  in  a  few  expressions.     Thus  :  — 

(1.)   With  habed,  do,  ministro,  in  a  few  passages  ;  as  :  — 

Tantum  habeS  polliceri,  I  have  so  much  to  promise  (Cic., 
Fam.,  i.,  5,  a,  3). 

(2.)  With  paratus  and  siietus  (insuetus),  used  as  adjectives. 
Thus  :  — 

Omnia  perpetl  paratus,  ready  to  endure  all;  insuetus 
vera  audire,  unaccustomed  to  hear  the  truth  (Liv.,  xxxi.,  18, 
3). 

a.  In  poetry  a  great  many  adjectives  are  used  with  the  infini- 
tive, where  we  might  rather  expect  a  gerund  or  a  subjunctive 
clause.     Thus  :  — 

Cedere  nescius,  unknowing  how  to  yield  (Hor.,  Carm.,  i.,  6, 
6);  avidi  commrttere  piignam,  eager  for  the  fray  (Ovid., 
M.,  5,  75)  ;  certa  morl,  bent  upon  death  (Verg.,  Aen.,  4,  564)  ; 
dlgnus  amdri,  worthy  to  be  loved  (Verg.,  Eel.,  5,  89). 

b.  A  rare  case  of  the  use  of  the  infinitive  as  a  noun  is :  ut 
inter  optime  valere  et  gravissime    aegrotare  nihil  prorsus 
dwerent  interesse,  so  that  they  said  there  was  absolutely  no  dif- 
ference between  being  perfectly  well  and  most  seriously  ill  (Cic., 
Fl».,  ii.,  13,  43).     Cf.  beate  vivere  vestrum  quale  est !  your 
h'ving  happily,  —  what  does  it  amount  to  ? 

c.  The  infinitive  of  purpose  depending  upon  a  verb  is  occa- 
sionally used  by  the  poets  ;  as  :  — 

Proteus  pecus  egit  altos  visere  monies',  Proteus  drove  his 
herds  to  visit  the  high  mountains  (Hor.,  Carm.,  i.,  2,  7). 


INFINITIVE  MOOD.  339 

OMISSION  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

537.  Esse  (and/m'sse),*  especially  as  elements  of  the 
future   active  and  perfect  passive   infinitives,    are   often 
omitted,  particularly  after  verbs  of  saying  or  thinking; 
as:  — 

Yds  cognovi  fortes  [esse],  I  have  found  you  brave  ;  adule- 
scentl  morem  gestum  [esse]  oportuit,  the  young  gentleman 
should  have  been  humored  (Ter.,  Ad.,  214) ;  promisit  se  ven- 
turum  [esse],  he  promised  to  come. 

a.  In  a  relative  clause,  an  infinitive  is  sometimes  omitted  when 
it  can  be  supplied  from  the  verb  of  the  main  clause  ;  as  :  — 

Quos  voluit  omnes  interfecit  [sc.  interficere],  he  killed  all 
whom  he  chose  [sc.  to  kill]. 

TENSES  OF  THE  INFINITIVE. 

538.  In  the  constructions  of  indirect  discourse  (real  or 
implied),  the  tenses  of  the  infinitive  represent  the  action 
as  past,  present,  or  future,  with  reference  to  the  word  of 
saying.     They  correspond  to  the  tenses  of  the  indicative 
as  follows :  — 

Pres.  infin.  =  pres.  indie. 

Perf.     "      =  past       "     (imperf.,  perf.,  or  pluper.). 

Fut.       "      =fut.        " 

a.  With  meminl  (and  occasionally  other  words)  the  present 
infinitive  is  used  to  represent  an  imperfect  indicative  ;  as,  Tide 
me  meminl  dicere,  I  remember  saying  this,  —  thus  denoting 
a  recollection  of  the  progress  of  an  action.     If  the  mere  fact 
is  remembered,  the  perfect  infinitive  is  used ;  as,  meministis 
me  ita  distribuisse  catisam,  you  remember  I  divided  the  case 
in  this  way. 

b.  Instead  of  the  future  infinitive  is  often  used  futurum  esse 
ut   (or  fore  ut)  with  a  subjunctive,  —  always  when   the   given 
verb  has  no  future  participle.     Thus  :  — 

Numquam  putavl  fore  ut  supplex  ad  te  venirem,  I  never 

*  Fore  is  less  commonly  omitted. 


340  SYNTAX. 

thought  I  should  come  to  you  as  a  suppliant  (Cic.,  Ait.,  xvi., 
16  c,  10)  ;  dlxit  futurum  esse  ut  poscerent,  he  said  they 
would  demand. 

539.  In  other  constructions  than  those  of  indirect  dis- 
course, only  the  present  infinitive  is  common.    The  perfect 
is  used  to  denote  COMPLETED  ACTION.* 

a.  With  verbs  of  WISHING,  OBLIGATION,  etc.,  the  perfect  pas- 
sive is  found  sometimes   where  the  present  would  seem  more 
logical ;  as  :  — 

Patres  vestrl  Corinthum  exstlnctum  esse  voluerunt, 
your  fathers  insisted  that  Corinth  should  be  destroyed  (Cic., 
Leg.  Man.,  5,  11). 

b.  In  early  Latin,  and  in  the  poets  and  later  writers,  the  per- 
fect active  is  also  thus  used  with  various  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

Tendentes  opaco  Pelion  imposuisse  Olympo,  struggling  to 
pile  Pelion  upon  shady  Olympus  (Hor.,  Carm.,  iii.,  4,  52)  ;  boo 
chatur  vates,  magnum  si  pectere  possit  excussisse  deum,  the 
prophetess  rushes  wildly  about  to  try  if  she  can  shake  off  the 
divine  influence  from  her  soul  (Verg.,  Aen.,  6,  78). 

SUBSTANTIVE  CLAUSES. 

540.  There  are  four  classes  of  substantive  clauses,  as 
follows :  — 

(1.)  Subjunctive  clauses  introduced  by  ut,  rie,  quin^ 
etc.  (developed  from  purpose  or  result).  (Cf.  484  ff.) 

(2.)  Infinitives  with  subject  accusative  (indirect  dis- 
course). (Cf.  515  ff.  and  533  ff.) 

(3.)  Indirect  questions.     (Cf.  518.) 

(4.)  Indicative  clauses  introduced  by  quod  =  "  the 
fact  that "  (a  variety  of  causal  clauses)  ;  as :  — 

Magnum  btneficiuan  est  naturae,  quod  necesse  est  raori, 
it  is  a  great  natural  blessing  that  we  must  die. 

*  Especially  with  expressions  like  satis  habeo,pudet,  contentus  sum,  melius 
erit,  etc. 


SUBSTANTIVE   CLAUSES.  341 

Which  of  these  kinds  of  substantive  clauses  should  he  used 
with  any  given  verb  can  generally  be  determined  by  considering 
the  nature  of  the  thing  said,  as  follows  :  — 

541.  (1.)  If  the  thing  said  in  the  substantive  clause 
has  the  nature  of  a  STATEMENT  (spoken  or  thought),  an 
infinitive  clause  is  used  ;  as  :  — 

Ndn  putabant  de  tali  viro  suspiciSnibus  oportere  iu- 
dicari,  such  a  man  ought  not  to  be  judged  [they  thought]  by 
suspicious  circumstances. 

(2.)  If  the  thing  said  involves  a  REASON  or  EXPLANA- 
TORY fact,  the  substantive  clause  takes  quod  ;  as  :  — 

Mihi  quidem  videntur  homines  hoc  re  maxime  beluis 
praestare  quod  loqui  possunt,  to  me,  at  least,  men  seem  to 
have  the  advantage  over  the  brutes  in  this  respect  chiefly,  that 
they  can  speak  (Cic.). 

(3.)  If  the  thing  said  is  a  question,  the  substantive 
clause,  as  an  indirect  question,  takes  the  subjunctive ; 
as  :  — 

Quae  esset  brevissima  via  quaeswit,  he  asked  what  was 
the  shortest  way. 

(4.)  If  the  thing  said  has  not  the  nature  of  any  of 
these  three  things,  the  substantive  clause  takes  the  sub- 
junctive with  ut*  rie,  etc.  ;  as :  — 

Feel  rion  invltus  ut  prodessem  multis  rogatu  tuo,  I 
have  been  not  unwilling  to  contribute  to  the  advantage  of 
many  people  at  your  request  (Cic.,  Am.,  1,  4)  ;  ad  Appi  Claudl 
senectutem,  accedebat  etiam  ut  caecus  esset,  to  the  old 
age  of  Appius  Claudius  even  blindness  was  added  (Cic.,  Sen., 
6,  16). 

NOTE.  Verbs  which  in  their  original  use  take  some  particular  form  of 
substantive  clause  often  acquire  shades  of  meaning  which  admit  other 
forms.  The  possible  uses  with  any  given  verb  are  best  learned  from  the 
dictionary,  and  by  observing  the  practice  of  the  Latin  writers. 


342  SYNTAX. 


PARTICIPLES. 

In  the  use  of  the  Latin  participles  the  following  points  should 
he  noted  :  — 

542.  Participles  are  followed  by  the  same  cases  and 
constructions  as  their  verbs.     Thus  :  — 

Quldam,  poeta  nominatus,  some  one,  called  a  poet. 

Catulorum  oblita  leaena,  a  lioness  forgetful  of  her  whelps 
(Verg.,  £.,  3,  245). 

Faventes  rebus  Karthaginiensium,  favoring  the  interests 
of  the  Carthaginians. 

Casus  abies  visura  marlnos,  a  fir  tree  [which  is]  to  see  the 
chances  of  the  deep  (Verg.,  G.,  2,  68). 

Horum  opera  saepe  anted  usus,  having  used  their  services 
often  before. 

543.  The  PRESENT  participle  denotes  something  going 
on  at  the  same  time  as  the  action  of  the  verb  with  which 
it  is  connected.     Thus  :  — 

Turnum  fugientem  haec  terra  videbit,  this  land  shall  see 
Turnus  fleeing  (Verg.). 

a.  The  action  denoted  by  a  Latin  present  participle  must 
belong  to  exactly  the  same  time  as  the  main  action.     Only  cer- 
tain participles  denoting  motion  —  veniens,  adveniens,  etc. — 
are  used  with  that  kind  of  loose  reference  to  present  time  which 
the  English  participle  often  has.     Thus  we  say,  "  hearing  this 
sound,  I  ran  quickly,"  where  the  Roman  could  not  use  a  present 
participle,  but  would  take  some  other  form  of  expression  ;  as, 
qi(d  son-foil  audits  currebam  celeriter,  or  cum  hunc  sonitum 
audivissem,  etc. 

b.  The  present  participle  depending  upon  a  verb  of  saying  or 
perceiving  is   almost  equivalent  to  an  infinitive,  but  is  a  more 
lively   form    of   expression.      See  fugientem   in    the   example 
above. 

Cf.  Laelium  et  Sclpionem  facimus  admlrantis,  I  represent 
Laelius  and  Scipio  expressing  their  wonder  (Cic.,  Sen.,  1,  3). 


PARTICIPLES.  343 

544.  The  PERFECT  participle  denotes  something  already 
finished  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  verb  with  which  it  is 
connected.     Thus :  — 

Qui,  missus  ab  Argis,  .  .  .  Itala  consederat  urbe,  who,  sent 
from  Argos,  .  .  .  had  settled  in  the  Italian  city  (Verg.,  Ae., 
10,  779). 

a.  The  perfect  participle  of  many  deponent  verbs  has  almost 
the  force  of   a  present  participle.     So,  commonly,  arbitratus, 
ratus,  solitus,  usus,  veritus.     Also  ausus,  commorattis,  flsus, 
secutus,  and  others. 

b.  The  perfect  participle  of  deponent  verbs  is  sometimes  used 
in  a  passive  sense ;  as,  experta  virtus,  valor  that  has  been  tried. 

NOTE.  Except  in  the  case  of  deponent  verbs,  an  active  perfect  parti- 
ciple has  to  be  supplied  in  Latin  by  changing  the  construction  to  the 
passive  (Ablative  Absolute),  or  by  a  temporal  or  causal  clause  (especially 
a  clause  introduced  by  CU?M,  postquam,  or  dum). 

545.  The  FUTURiTparticiple  denotes  something  which 
is  to  take  place  after  the  time  indicated  by  the  verb  with 
which  it  is  connected.     Thus :  — 

Magna,  pars  hominum  est,  quae  navigatura  de  tempestate 
rion  cogitat,  there  is  a  large  part  of  mankind  who  when  on  the 
point  of  taking  a  voyage  do  not  think  about  the  state  of  the 
weather. 

a.  The  future  participle  thus  agreeing  with  a  noun  or  pro- 
noun is  rare  in  good  prose.  In  the  poets  and  later  writers, 
(including  Livy)  it  frequently  denotes  likelihood,  intention,  or 
purpose.  Thus :  — 

An  sese  medios  moriturus  in  hostes  mferat,  or  shall  he 
plunge  into  the  midst  of  the  foe,  to  meet  his  death  (Verg., 
Ae.,  9,  398). 

546.  The  present  and  perfect  participles  are  often  used 
as  attributive  adjectives  (or  as  nouns),  and  can  even  be 
compared,  like  other  adjectives.     Thus  :  — 

Urbs  florentissima,  a  most  flourishing  city. 
Vir  spectatus,  a  man  proved  worthy. 


344  SYNTAX. 

Male  parta  male  dilabuntur,  ill  gotten  gains  slip  away  in 
the  same  bad  fashion  (Cic.,  Phil.,  ii.,  27,  65). 

Quo  paratior  ad  usum  forensem  promptiorque  esse  passim, 
that  I  may  be  better  prepared  and  more  ready  for  forensic  prac- 
tice (Cic.,  Caec.,  13,  41). 

547.  A  present  or  a  perfect  participle  is  also  often  used 
in  the  sense  of  a  predicate,  where  in  English  a  clause  (or 
phrase)  would  be  found  denoting  an  accompanying  cir- 
cumstance, a  cause  or  hindrance,  etc.  Thus  :  — 

Sanguls  in  totum  corpus  distribultur  per  venas  in  omnes 
paries  corporis  pertinentes,  the  blood  is  distributed  to  the 
whole  body,  through  veins  which  extend  into  all  parts  of  the 
body  (Cic.,  N.  D.,  ii.,  55,  137)  ;  Caesar  exploratls  regidnibus 
albente  caelo  omnes  copias  castrls  eduxit,  Caesar,  having  re- 
connoitred the  country,  led  all  his  forces  forth  from  camp  as 
day  was  breaking  (Caes.,  B.  C.,  1,  68). 

a.  This  is  the  regular  use  of  the  participle  in  the  ablative 
absolute  construction  (cf.  422),  as  in  the  last  example. 

b.  Sometimes  a  participle  is  made  to  agree  with  a  noun,  when 
the  participle  itself  contains  the  main  idea.     In  English  a  noun 
(especially  one  in  "  ing  ")  is  used  instead  of  the  participle,  and 
its  relation  to  the  other  noun  is  expressed  by  "  of."     Thus :  — 

Hae  lltterae  recitatae  magnum  luctum  fecerunt,  the 
reading  of  this  letter  caused  great  grief  (Llv.)  ;  ab  condita 
wrbe  ad  Hberatam,  from  the  founding  of  the  city  to  the  estab- 
lishment of  the  republic  [literally,  to  its  freeing]  (Llv.). 

Cf.  also  the  use  of  the  gerundive  (550,  especially  d). 

c.  Beside  its  regular  use  in  forming  the  compound  tenses  of 
the  verb  (see  211),  the  perfect  participle  is  sometimes  used  with 
habed  almost  in  the  sense  of  the  English  compound  tenses.     In 
Latin,  however,  the  two  parts  of  the  expression  retain  their  own 
force  more  distinctly  than  in  English,  and  the  use  is  chiefly  con- 
fined to  words  of  knowing  and  the  like.     Thus  :  — 

Clodl  animum  perspectum  habeo.  I  have  thoroughly  in- 
vestigated Clodius's  state  of  mind  [literally,  I  hold  it  in  an 


PARTICIPLE.  —  GEKUND   AND   GERUNDIVE.  345 

investigated  condition].  Cf.  (Plaut.,  Cap.,  345)  transactum 
reddet  omne,  he  will  do  the  thing  up  brown  [literally,  he  will 
return  it  finished],  and  (in  Terence  and  Cicero)  missum  facio, 
I  let  go,  dismiss. 

GERUND  and  GERUNDIVE. 

548.  (1.)  The  GERUND  is  a  verbal  noun  used  in  the 
oblique  cases  with  the  same  force  which  the   infinitive 
has  as  subject  (or  object)  of  a  verb,  and  governing  the 
cases  like  any  other  part  of   the  verb.      Its  meaning  is 
active. 

(2.)  The  GERUNDIVE  is  a  verbal  adjective  denoting 
necessity,  propriety,  or  duty,  or,  in  the  oblique  cases,  tak- 
ing the  place  of  the  gerund  under  certain  circumstances. 
In  the  first  of  these  uses  it  is  passive ;  in  the  second, 
though  seemingly  passive,  it  is  really,  like  the  gerund, 
active. 

549.  Examples  of  the  use  of  the  gerund  are  as  fol- 
lows :  —     . 

Metus  parendi  sibi,  fear  of  obeying  him  ;  parcendo  victis, 
by  sparing  the  conquered  ;  efferor  studio  patres  vestros  .  .  . 
videndi,  I  am  carried  away  with  a  desire  to  see  your  fathers 
(Cic.,  Sen.,  23,  83). 

550.  Instead  of  the  gerund  with  an  object,  in  the 
case  of  transitive  verbs  the  gerundive  construction  is  com- 
monly used  ;  i.  e.,  the  object  is  put  in  the  case  which  the 
gerund  would  have  had,  and  the  gerundive  is  made  to 
agree  with  it.     Thus  :  — 

Consilium  scrlbendae  epistulae,  the  purpose  of  writing  a 
letter  (Gerund,  scrlbendl  epistulam)  ;  ad  defendendam  Ro- 
mam  ab  oppugnanda  Capua  duces  Romanos  abstrahit,  he 
draws  off  the  Roman  generals  from  the  siege  of  Capua  to 
the  defense  of  Rome  (Gerund,  ad  defendendum  Romam  ab  op- 
pugnando  Capuam)  ;  reparandarum  classium  causa,  for 
the  sake  of  repairing  the  fleets  (Gerund,  reparandl  classes). 


346  SYNTAX. 

a.  The  gerundive,  rather  than  the  gerund,  is  regularly  used 
with  the  verbs  utor,  fruor,  fungor,  potior,  vescor,  which  in  early 
times  took  the  accusative  where  later  usage  employed  the  abla- 
tive.    Thus  :  — 

Quod  ilia  aetas  magis  ad  haec  iitenda  (rather  than  ad 
his  utendum)  idoneast,  because  that  time  of  life  is  better 
suited  to  these  employments  (Ter.,  Heaut.,  133)  ;  iustitiae 
fruendae  (rather  than  iustitia  fruendl)  causa,  for  the  sake 
of  enjoying  justice  ;  hostes  in  spem  potiundorum  castrorum 
(rather  than  potiundi  castris)  venerant,  the  enemy  had  come 
into  the  hope  of  getting  possession  of  the  camp. 

b.  If  ambiguity  would  arise  (through  confusion  of  the  gender) 
from  the  use  of  the  gerundive,  the  gerund  is  used.     So  especially 
when  the  object  is  a  neuter  pronoun  or  adjective.     Thus  :  — 

A  liquid  faciendi  ratio,  a  principle  of  doing  something 
(Cic.)  ;  artem  et  vera  et  falsa  dimdicandi,  the  art  of  distin- 
guishing the  true  and  the  false  (Cic.). 

c.  The  genitive  of  the  gerund  sometimes  occurs  with  a  pos- 
sessive pronoun  agreeing  with  it,  rarely  also  with  a   noun  de- 
pending upon  it,  where  it  looks  at  first  sight  like  a  gerundive 
irregularly  used.     Thus  :  — 

Quoniam  tui  videndi  est  copia,  since  there  is  an  opportunity 
of  seeing  you  [said  of  a  woman]  (Plaut.)  ;  in  castra  venerunt 
sui  purgandl  causa,  they  came  to  the  camp  for  the  sake  of 
excusing  themselves  [lit.,  of  their  own  excusing]  (Liv.)  ;  non 
vereor  ne  quis  me  haec  vestri  adhortandi  causa  magnifice 
loqul  existimet,  I  am  not  afraid  any  one  will  think  I  exaggerate 
this  to  encourage  you  (Liv.,  xxi.,  41,  l)  ?  exemplorum  eligendi 
potestas,  the  power  of  [the]  choosing  [of]  examples  (Cic.). 

d.  The  gerund  and  gerundive  represent  something  as  not  yet 
completed  or  accomplished.     If  something  completed  is  spoken 
of,  the  perfect  participle  must  be  used.     Thus  :  — 

Susplcio  regnl  adpetendi,  a  suspicion  of  aiming  at  royal 
power ;  susplcio  regni  adpetiti,  a  suspicion  of  having  aimed 
at  royal  power ;  ante  conditam  condendamve  urbem,  be- 


GERUND   AND   GERUNDIVE.  347 

fore  the  founding  of   the   city  was   accomplished   or   planned 
(Liv.,  i.,  praef.,  6). 

CASES  OF  THE  GERUND  AND  GERUNDIVE. 

551.  The  GENITIVE  of  the  gerund  or  gerundive  with 
causa  (or  gratia)  *  and  the  ACCUSATIVE  of  the  gerund  or 
gerundive   with   ad   are   often  used  to  denote  purpose. 
Thus :  — 

Postremo  \_Catillna~]  dissimulandi  causa  vel  sui  expur- 
gandl .  .  .  in  senatum  venit,  finally,  for  the  purpose  of  hiding 
[the  real  state  of  the  case]  or  of  clearing  himself,  Catiline  came 
into  the  senate  (Sail.,  Cat.,  31,  4)  ;  ad  castra  facienda,  for  the 
purpose  of  making  a  camp  (Cic.). 

a.  The  DATIVE  of  the  gerundive  is  used  to  express  a  purpose, 
after  names  of  offices,  and  words  denoting  election  or  appoint- 
ment.    Thus  :  — 

Decemviri  legibus  scribendis,  a  commission  of  ten  for  writ- 
ing out  the  laws  ;  triumviros  agro  dando  creat,  he  appoints  a 
committee  of  three  for  assigning  land  (Liv.,  3,  1,  6). 

NOTE.     Otherwise  the  dative  of  both  gerund  and  gerundive  is  rare. 

b.  The  ACCUSATIVE  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  (except  in 
the  use  treated  under  552,  2)  is  found  only  with  the  prepositions 
ad  and  (occasionally)  ante,  in  or  ob,  or  (in  verse)  inter.     See 
above  examples. 

c.  The  ABLATIVE  of  the  gerund  and  gerundive  is  used  with 
prepositions,    and   to   denote    cause,    manner,    or   instrument. 
Thus  :  — 

De  consulatu  petendo,  in  regard  to  being  a  candidate  for 
the  consulship  ;  currendo  et  luctandd  exercere,  to  exercise 
by  running  and  wrestling. 

OTHER  USES  OF  THE  GERUNDIVE. 

552.  Besides  forming  the  periphrastic  conjugation  (see 
229,  2),  to  denote  what  must  be  done,  or  ought  to  be 

*  These  nouns  are  almost  always  placed  after  the  genitive  because  the 
genitive  is  almost  always  the  more  emphatic  of  the  two  words  (see  585). 


348  SYNTAX. 

dojic,  and  serving  as  a  substitute  for  the  gerund  (see  550 
and  551),  the  gerundive  is  chiefly  used  as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  As  an  attributive  adjective,  meaning  "  worthy  of," 
and  the  like.  Thus  :  — 

[Prudentia]  quae  est  rerum  expetendarum  fugienda- 
Tumque  scientia,  prudence,  which  is  the  knowledge  of  things 
to  be  desired  and  things  to  be  shunned  (Cic.,  Off.,  i.,  43,  153)  ; 
admlranda  frugalitas,  an  admirable  frugality  (Cic.,  Deiot.,  9, 
26). 

(2.)  As  a  predicate  adjective  denoting  PURPOSE,  after 
words  meaning  to  give,  deliver,  agree  for,  undertake,  re- 
ceive, and  some  others.  Thus  :  — 

Testamentum  tibi  tradet  legendum,  he  will  hand  his  will 
to  you  to  read  (Hor.,  Sat.,  ii.,  5,  5l)  ;  attribuit  n5s  truci- 
dandos  CetTiego,  he  assigned  us  to  Cethegus  to  be  butchered 
(Cic.,  Cat.,  iv.,  6,  is). 

(3.)  The  neuter  is  sometimes  used  impersonally  (espe- 
cially in  early  Latin  and  the  poets)  governing  a  case. 
Thus :  — 

Nunc  pacem  orandum,  nunc  .  .  .  anna  reponendum 
et  bellum  exitiale  cavendum,  now  we  must  beg  for  peace, 
now  lay  aside  arms  and  avoid  murderous  war  (Sil.) ;  cum  suo 
cuique  iudicio  sit  utendum,  since  each  must  use  his  own 
judgment ;  quam  nobls  quoque  ingrediundum  sit,  [a  road] 
which  we  too  must  travel  (Cic.,  Sen.,  2,  6). 

SUPINE. 

NOTE.  The  supine  is  found  in  a  comparatively  small  number  of  verbs. 
For  a  list  of  them  see  Draeger's  Historische  Syntax,  vol.  ii.,  p.  859  ff. 

553.  The  SUPINE  is  a  verbal  noun  with  active  meaning, 
used  only  in  the  accusative  and  ablative,  as  follows  :  — 

554.  The  ACCUSATIVE  of  the  supine  is  used  :  — 

(1.)  To  form  the  future  passive  infinitive  with  In  (see 
211,  a).  Thus  :  — 


GERUND   AND   GERUNDIVE. — SUPINE.  349 

Ait  Karthdginem  cap  turn  iri,  he  says  Carthage  is  going  to 
be  (or  will  be)  taken. 

NOTE.  Here  m  is  used  impersonally,  and  the  apparent  subject  of  the  in- 
finitive is  really  the  object  of  the  supine. 

(2.)  With  verbs  of  motion  (expressed  or  implied),  to 
denote  PURPOSE.  Thus  :  — 

Legatl  venerunt  questum  iniurias  et  res  repetltum, 
ambassadors  came  to  complain  of  wrongs  and  demand  restitu- 
tion (Liv.) ;  cubitum  discessimus,  we  parted  for  the  night  [lit., 
to  lie  down]  (Cic.,  lie  Pub.,  vi.,  10,  10)  ;  puerum  misit  roga- 
tum,  quid  vellet,  he  sent  a  boy  to  ask  what  he  wished. 

a.  So  metaphorically,  dare  niiptum,  collocare  nuptum,  give 
in  marriage,  sessum  recipere,  offer  a  seat,  perditum  Ire,  go  to 
ruin. 

b.  The  accusative  of  the  supine  is  especially  rare  with  an  ob- 
ject, as  in  the  first  example  above. 

555.  The  ABLATIVE  of  the  supine  is  used  in  classical 
Latin  only  as  an  ablative  of  specification  (see  412), 
chiefly  with  the  adjectives  facilis,  difficilis  ;  iucundus, 
iniucundus  ;  honestus,  turpis ;  credibilis,  incredibilis ; 
mirabilis,  utilis,  optimus  ;  and  with  the  nouns  fas,  nefas, 
opus.  Thus  :  — 

Rem  .  .  .  factu  facilem,  a  thing  easy  to  do  (Ter.,  ffeaut., 
704) ;  mlrabile  dictu,  wonderful  to  tell  (Verg.,  6r.,  2,  30)  ;  in- 
credibile  memoratil,  incredible  to  relate  (Sail.,  Cat.,  6,  2)  ;  hoc 
fas  est  dictu,  this  is  a  right  thing  to  say  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  v., 
13,  38) ;  dictu  opus  est,  it  must  be  said  (Ter.,  Heaut.,  941). 

a.  The  ablative  of  the  following  supines  occurs  in  classical 
Latin  :  audltu,  cognitu,  dictu,  factu,  intellectu,  inventu,  memo- 
ratu,  scltu,  vlsu. 

b.  In  Livy  and  later  writers  dlgnus  and  indlgnus  occur  with 
the  ablative  of  a  supine  ;  as,  indignum  relatu. 

c.  The  gerundive  with  ad  is  more  common  with  facilis,  diffi- 
cilis, and  iucundus,  and  the  infinitive  is  also  used  ;  as,  facile 
est  invenire,  it  is  easy  to  find.     Dignus  takes  qul  with  the 


350  SYNTAX. 

subjunctive  in  classical  Latin,  or  the  ablative  of  a  noun.     (Cf. 
also  536,  a.) 

The  Different  Constructions  of  Purpose. 

556.  The  following  eight  ways  of  expressing  PURPOSE 
are  possible  in  Latin  :  — 

(1.)  Subjunctive  with  ut  or  tie. 

(2.)  "  "a  relative. 

(3.)  Gerund  (or  gerundive)  with  ad. 

(4.)        "  "  "   causa  (gratia). 

(5.)  Accusative  of  the  gerundive. 

(6.)  Future  participle. 

(7.)  Supine. 

(8.)  Infinitive. 

a.  Of  these  the  subjunctive  with  ut  or  qui  is  the  common 
and  regular  construction  (for  the  distinction  between  ut  and  qui 
see  482,  2,  note).  The  gerund  and  gerundive  constructions 
(with  ad  or  causa)  are  used  only  in  short  expressions,  and  rarely 
if  the  verb  of  purpose  has  any  further  modifier  than  an  object 
and  an  adverb  of  manner.  The  gerundive  without  ad  or  causa 
is  used  only  with  the  verbs  given  under  552,  2.  The  future 
participle  belongs  mostly  to  late  Latin,  and  is  said  not  to  occur 
in  Cicero  at  all.  The  supine  is  used  only  as  in  554.  The 
infinitive  is  poetical  and  not  common.  (Cf.  536.) 

ADVERBS. 

557.  Latin  ADVERBS  are  used,  in  general,  like  English 
adverbs,  to  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs. 

a.  The  adverbs  in  -e  and  -ter  (from  adjectives  of  the  second 
and  third  declensions  respectively)  are  usually  adverbs  of  MAN- 
NER ;  as,  care,  dearly ;  praecldre,  nobly  ;  audacter,  boldly ;  levi- 
ter,  lightly. 

b.  The  adverbs  in  -um  and  -im  (originally  accusatives),  are 
usually  adverbs  of  QUANTITY  or  AMOUNT  ;  as,  multum,  much  ; 
paulum,  a  little ;  partim,  partly.     They  therefore  modify  verbs 
chiefly. 


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CONSTRUCTIONS  OF  PURPOSE.  —  ADVERBS.    351 


c.  The  adverbs  in  -5  (originally  ablatives)  are  usually  adverbs 
of  DEGREE  OF  DIFFERENCE  ;  as,  multo,  by  far,  much  ;  paulo, 
(by)  a  little.     They  therefore  modify  adjectives  and  adverbs 
chiefly. 

NOTE  1.  The  last  two  classes  tend  to  pass  into  each  other,  so  that  the 
difference  is  sometimes  so  subtle  as  to  seem  wholly  arbitrary.  Cf .  primum, 
first  (in  a  series),  to  begin  with,  with  primo,  first  (in  time),  in  the  first 
place. 

NOTE  2.  Apparent  exceptions  to  the  above  are  the  adverbs  of  emphatic 
assertion,  sane,  vero,  profecto,  certo,  and  others,  though  generally  they  are 
adverbs  of  manner  which  have  lost  their  original  meanings. 

d.  Of  the  words  for  "so,"  ita  and  (more  emphatic)  sic  are 
adverbs  of  manner,  and  modify  verbs  ;  tarn  is  an  adverb  of  de- 
gree, and  modifies  chiefly  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

e.  Ut  .  .  .  ita,  "as  .  .  .  so,"  are  often  equivalent  to   "  al- 
though .  .  .  yet  "  (one   member  of   the  comparison  being   by 
implication  a  negative).     Thus  :  — 

Ut  quies  certaminum  erat,  ita  ab  apparatu  operum  .  .  . 
nihil  cessatum,  though  there  was  a  cessation  of  conflict,  yet 
there  was  no  interruption  in  the  construction  of  fortifications 
(Liv.,  xxi.,  8,  1). 

f.  With  a  word  or  phrase   explaining  something  said,  ut  is 
sometimes  ambiguous.     It  may  be  "seeing  that,"  giving  a  rea- 
son, or  "  considering  that,"  indicating  a  limitation,  and  the  con- 
text has  to  decide.     Thus  :  — 

Epicharmi,  acutl  nee  Insulsl  hominis,  ut  Sicull,  of  Epi- 
charmus,  a  clever  and  witty  man  as  [you  would  expect  of]  a 
Sicilian  (Cic.,  Tiisc.,  i.,  8,  15)  ;  Spurius  Maelius  .  .  .  ut  illls 
temporibus  praedives,  Spurius  Maelius,  a  very  rich  man  for 
those  times  (Liv.,  iv.,  13,  l). 

g.  Of  the  words  for  "  not,"  rion  indicates  simple  negation,  ne 
negatives  commands  or  purposes,  and  hand  is  used  with  single 
words  and  phrases,  especially  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

h.  In  Latin  an  adjective  is  sometimes  used,  characterizing 
the « person  who  does  a  thing  (especially  his  state  of  mind), 
where  English  prefers  an  adverb  of  manner  or  order.  Thus  :  — 

Itaque  fed  n5n  invitus,  ut  prodessem  multis  tuo  rogatu,  I 


352  SYNTAX. 

have  not  unwillingly  labored  at  your  request  for  the  benefit  of 
many  (Cic.,  Am.,  i.,  4)  ;  quid  prudens  et  sciens  ad,  interitum 
ruis,  why  do  you  rush  to  destruction  knowingly  and  with  your 
eyes  open  ?  hostes  rari  se  ostendere  eoeperunt,  the  enemy  be- 
gan to  show  themselves  here  and  there  ;  priori  Rerno  au~ 
gurium  venisse  fertur,  an  omen  is  said  to  have  come  to  Remus 
first. 

i.  With  words  like  primus  there  is  a  difference  of  meaning 
according  as  (1)  the  adjective  agreeing  with  the  subject,  or 
(2)  the  adjective  agreeing  with  the  object,  or  (3)  the  adverb  is 
used.  Thus  :  — 

Ille  primus  aedem  hw  posuit,  he  was  the  first  to  build  a 
temple  here. 

Ille  primam  aedem  hw  posuit,  he  built  the  first  temple  here 
[some  one  else  may  have  built  another]. 

Ille  primum  aedem  hie  posuit,  he  first  built  a  temple  here 
[and  then  did  something  else]. 

PREPOSITIONS. 

558.  The  PREPOSITIONS  originally  expressed  relations 
of  place,  and  then  passed  into  other  relations. 

A  synopsis  of  their  use  may  be  given  as  follows  :  — 

Prepositions  with  Accusative. 

559.  (1.)  Ad,  towards,  to  (opposite  of  ab).     PLACE:    ad 
urbem  ire,  to  go  to,  or  towards,  the  city  ;  ad  'urbem  esse,  to  be 
near  the  city.     TIME  :  ad  senectutem,  to,  or  till,  old  age ;  ad 
vesperum,  towards  evening.    NUMBER  :  ad  mllia  tria,*  towards, 
or  about,  three  thousand.     METAPHORICAL  relations :  ad  vitam 
beatam.  towards,  or  with  regard  to,  a  happy  life ;  ad  tantum 
bellum,  towards,  or  for,  so  great  a  war ;  ad  me  scrlbere,  to  write 
to  me ;  ad  oppidum  eapiendum,  towards,  or  for  the  purpose  of, 
taking  the  town  ;  ad  voluntdtem  meam,  according  to  my  wish  ; 
ad   hunc  modum  sermo  est  institutus,  the  conversation  was 
started  in  this  fasliion. 

*  In  the  historians  and  later  writers  ad  is  also  used  as  an  adverb  with 
numbers.  Thus:  ad  duorum  milium  numerus,  a  number  of  about  two 
thousand  (Caes.)- 


PKEPOSITIONS   WITH   ACCUSATIVE.  353 

(2.)  Adversus  (less  commonly  adversum)  [p.p.  of  advertere; 
i.  e.,  ad  and  vertere,  to  turn],  turned  towards,  towards,  against, 
facing.  PLACE  :  adversus  aegrum,  opposite  the  sick  man ; 
adversum  speculum,  before  the  mirror.  METAPHORICALLY: 
quonam  modo  me  gererem  adversus  Caesarem,  how  should  I 
have  conducted  myself  towards  Caesar?  adversum  legem, 
against  the  law ;  impetus  adversus  montem,  an  attack  against, 
or  upon,  the  mountain. 

(3.)  Ante,  before  (opposite  of  post).  PLACE  (used  only  with 
objects  at  rest)  :  ante  aedls,  before  the  house ;  ante  se,  before 
himself ;  ante  oculos,  before  one's  eyes,  or  face.  TIME  :  ante 
hiemem,*  before  winter ;  ante  lucem,  before  daylight.  META- 
PHORICALLY :  ante  alias  pulchen"ima  omriis,  fair  before,  or 
beyond,  all  others ;  ante  omnia,  before,  or  above,  all  things. 

(4.)  Apud,  near  (primarily  of  persons  and  used  only  where 
no  motion  is  implied).  Apud  Caesarem,  before  Caesar,  or  at 
Caesar's  house ;  hoc  est  apud  Graecos  prope  gloriosius  quam 
Romae  triumpJidsse,  this  is  almost  more  glorious  among  the 
Greeks  than  a  triumph  is  at  Rome  ;  bellatum  apud  Actium,  a 
battle  was  fought  at  Actium ;  magna  apud  plebem  gratia,  of 
great  influence  with  the  commons. 

(5.)  Circum  (later  also  circa),  around,  about.  PLACE:  terra 
circum  axem  se  convertit,  the  earth  revolves  around  its  axis 
(Cic.,  Acad.,  ii.,  39,  123)  ;  capillus  circum  caput  reiectus,  hair 
thrown  back  about  the  head  ;  circum  haec  loca,  about  these 
places ;  circa  forum,  about  the  forum  (Quint.)  ;  paucae  quae 
circum  illam  essent,  the  few  [attendants]  about  her  (Ter.). 

(6.)  Circiterrf  about  (very  rare  of  place  and  mostly  used  of 
time).  Circiter  memdiem,  about  noon. 

(7.)  Citra  (more  rarely  cis),  on  this  side  of  (opposite  of 
ultra).  PLACE  :  citra  Rhenum,  on  this  side  of  the  Rhine  ;  cis 
Taurum,  this  side  the  Taurus  mountain.  TIME  (post-classical, 
cis  also  in  Plautus)  :  cis  paucos  dies,  within  a  few  days.  META- 
PHORICALLY (post  classical)  :  citra  virtutem,  without  virtue. 

*  "Two  days  before  "  and  similar  expressions  may  be  rendered  into 
Latin  in  either  of  the  following  ways :  ante  (prep.)  duos  dies ;  duobus  ante 
(adv.)  diebus. 

t  More  common  as  an  adverb. 


354  SYNTAX. 

(8.)  Contra,  opposite,  against.  PLACE  :  contra  Italiam, 
opposite  Italy ;  contra  Massiliam,  off  Marseilles  ?  contra 
medium  port Icurn,  facing  the  middle  of  the  portico;  contra 
hostem  fossam  facere,  to  make  a  ditch  facing  the  enemy; 
dacere  contra  hostes,  to  lead  against  the  enemy.  METAPHOR- 
ICALLY :  contra  sententiam,  contrary  to  one's  opinion;  conin- 
rationemfacere  contra  Caesarem,  to  make  a  conspiracy  against 
Caesar. 

(9.)  Erga.  towards  (chiefly  of  feelings  towards  persons,  and 
generally  friendly).  Erga  ilium  benignus,  kindly  disposed 
towards  him  ;  did  no,  bonitas  erga  homines,  the  divine  goodness 
towards  mankind ;  odium  erga  regem,  hatred  towards  the 
king  ;  erga  me  urn  salutem.  in  regard  to  my  safety  (Cic.) 

(10.)  Extra,  outside  of,  beyond  (opposite  of  infra).  PLACE: 
extra  Pdoponrietum,  outside  of  the  Peloponnesus :  extra 
provinciam,  beyond  the  province.  METAPHORICALLY:  extra 

iierum,  beyond  the  number  ;  extra  modum,  beyond  bounds ; 
extra  unum  te^  except  you  alone. 

(11.)  Infra,  on  the  under  side,  below  (opposite  of  supra). 
Infra  oppidum.  below  the  town;  infra  infimos  homines,  be- 
neath the  lowest  of  mankind  (Ter.). 

(12.)  Inter,  between,  among.  Inter  Padum  et  Alpes,  be- 
tween the  Po  and  the  Alps ;  inter  primos,  among  the  first ; 
inter  has  turbas,  in  the  midst  of  these  disturbances  ;  inter 
noctem.  during  the  night. 

(13.)  Intra,  inside  of,  within  (opposite  of  extra).  Intra 
parietes  meos.  within  my  walls ;  intra  arnws  qulnque.  within 
five  years  ;  intra  centum,  less  than  a  hundred. 

(14.)  luxta,  close  to,  near.  luxta  eum  castra  posuit,  he 
pitched  his  camp  close  to  him  ;  iuxta  deds.  next  to  the  gods ; 
iuxta  seditionem,  next  tiling  to  an  insurrection. 

(15.)  Ob  (before,  as  an  obstruction,  but  mostly  used  in  the 
metaphorical  sense  **  on  account  of  ").  Mors  ob  oculos  versata 
est,  death  danced  before  his  eyes  ;  ob  stultitiam.  on  account  of, 
or  through,  folly ;  ob  earn  rem,  on  that  account. 

(16.)  Penes,  in  the  possession,  power,  or  hands  of.  Penes 
eos  victoria  est,  the  victory  is  with  them  ;  penes  regem,  in  the 
king's  power. 


PREPOSITIONS   WITH   ACCUSATIVE.  355 

(17.)  Per,  through.  PLACE  :  per  forum  Ire,  to  go  through 
the  forum ;  per  'mare,  over  the  sea.  TIME  :  per  hiemem, 
through  the  winter ;  per  indutias,  during  the  truce.  MET- 
APHORICALLY :  per  vos,  through  your  means  ;  per  me  licet, 
you  may,  for  all  I  care  ;  per  ludum,  in  sport.  IN  ASSEVERA- 
TIONS :  per  deos,  by  the  gods  ;  per  tuam  jidem,  by  your  honor. 

(18.)  Pone,  behind  (rare  in  classical  Latin).  Pone  me,  be- 
hind me ;  pone  castra,  behind  the  camp. 

(19.)  Post,  behind,  after  (opposite  of  ante).  PLACE  :  post 
me,  behind  me ;  post  montem,  behind  the  mountain.  TIME  : 
post  paucos  dies,*  after  a  few  days  ;  post  urbem  conditam, 
after  the  founding  of  the  city. 

(20.)  Praeter,  along  by,  beyond  (most  common  in  the 
metaphorical  meanings  "beyond,"  "except,"  "contrary  to"). 
Praeter  castra  ducere,  to  march  by,  or  beyond,  the  camp  ; 
praeter  aetatem  stultus,  foolish  beyond  his  years ;  praeter 
spem,  contrary  to  expectation ;  praeter  imperatas  pecunias, 
besides  the  money  ordered ;  nulli  vestltus  praeter  pelles,  no 
clothing  except  skins. 

(21.)  Prope,  near.  Prope  oppidum,  near  the  town  ;  prope 
me,  near  me. 

(22.)  Propter,  near  (but  chiefly  in  the  metaphorical  sense 
"on  account  of").  Propter  hanc  statuam,  near  this  statue; 
propter  frlgora,  on  account  of  the  cold  ;  propter  me,  on  my 
account. 

(23.)  Secundum,  following,  after  (participial  form  from  se- 
quor) .  PLACE  :  lie  secundum  me,  come  after,  or  behind,  me  ; 
secundum  mare  superum,  along  the  upper  [Adriatic]  sea. 
TIME  :  secundum  ludos,  after  the  sports ;  secundum  hunc 
diem,  after  this  day.  METAPHORICALLY  :  secundum  deos, 
next  to  the  gods  ;  secundum  naturam,  according  to  nature. 

(24.)  Supra,  on  the  upper  side  of,  above  (opposite  of  Infra). 
PLACE  :  supra  terram,  above  the  earth.  NUMBER  :  supra 
septem  mllia,  more  than  seven  thousand.  METAPHORICALLY  : 
supra  leges,  above  the  laws  ;  supra  humanam  fidem,  beyond 
what  one  could  believe  of  man. 

*  Or  pauclspost  diebus.     (Cf.  foot-note  on  p.  353.) 


356  SYNTAX. 

(25.)  Trans,  across,  beyond.  Trans  mare  ire,  to  go  across 
the  sea  ;  trans  Rhenum  esse,  to  be  across  the  Rhine. 

(26.)  Ultra,  on  the  farther  side  of,  beyond  (opposite  of  citra). 
Ultra  Padum,  on  the  other  side  of  the  Po ;  ultra  puerlles 
anrios,  beyond  the  years  of  boyhood;  ultra  modum,  beyond 
the  limit. 

Prepositions  with  Accusative  or  Ablative. 
56O  (1.)  In,  into  (with  accusative),  in  (with  ablative)  (oppo- 
site of  ex). 

a.  With  accusative   (motion   implied).     PLACE  :    in  urbem, 
into   the   city ;   in   Hisjmniam,   into    Spain ;    in   caelum,  to- 
wards heaven.     TIME:  in  multam  noctem,  till  late  at  night. 
METAPHORICALLY  :  in  perpetuum,  for  ever ;  in  aliquem  car- 
men scrlbere,  to  write  a  poem  on  somebody  ;  in  llberos  indul- 
gentia,  indulgence  towards  one's  children ;  pietas  in  deos,  piety 
towards  the  gods  ;  impetus  in  castra,  an  attack  upon  the  camp ; 
in  bellum  ardentes,  eager  for  war. 

b.  With  ablative  (motion  not   implied).      PLACE:   in  urbe, 
in  the  city ;  in  terra,  on  the  earth ;  in  contwne,  in  the  assem- 
bly ;  in  his,  among  'these.     TIME  :  in  adulescentia,  in  youth  ; 
in  eo  anno,  in  that  year.     METAPHORICALLY  :   in  me,  in  my 
case  ;  in  metu,  in  fear ;  in  hoc  genere,  in  this  class. 

(2.)  Sub,  under  (opposite  of  super). 

a.  With  accusative   (motion  implied).     PLACE:  sub  iugum 
mlttere,  to  send  under  the  yoke ;  sub  montem  accedere,  to  go 
to  the  foot  of  the  mountain.     TIME  :  sub  vesperum,  just  to- 
wards evening  ;  sub  lucem,  just  before  dawn  ;  sub  haec  dicta, 
just  after  this  was  said.     METAPHORICALLY:  sub  potestdtem 
eius  coder e,  to  fall  under  his  power. 

b.  With  ablative  (motion  not  implied).     PLACE  :  sub  terra, 
under  the  earth ;  sub  vestiment'is,  under  one's  clothing ;  sub 
monte,  at  the  foot  of  the  mountain.     TIME  :  sub  ipsa  profeo 
tidne,  just  at  the  start ;  sub  luce,  by  daylight.     METAPHOR- 
ICALLY :  sub  armis,  under  arms  ;  sub  regno  illlus,  under  his 
sway  ;  sub  his  condicwnibus,  on  these  terms. 

(3.)  Subter,  beneath   (rare  and  mostly  poetical).     Subter 


PREPOSITIONS   WITH   ACCUSATIVE   AND   ABLATIVE.     357 

fasflgia  tectl,  below  the  point  of  the  roof ;  subter  mare,  un- 
der the  sea  ;  subter  lltore,  by  [beneath]  the  shore. 
(4.)  Super,  above  (opposite  of  sub). 

a.  With   accusative.     Super   caput   hostium  pervemre,  to 
come  out  above  the  heads  of  the  enemy ;  aquila  super  carpen- 
tum  volitans,  an  eagle  flying  over  the  carriage  ;  super  Bospo- 
rum,  beyond  the   Bosporus  ;    super  epuias,  during  the  feast 
(post-classical). 

b.  With    ablative     (chiefly    in    the    metaphorical    meaning 
"about,"  "concerning").     Super  hac  re,  on  this  matter;  su- 
per ancilla,  in  regard  to  the  handmaid ;  super  Priamo  rogi- 
tans,  asking  about  Priam.     [Very  rare  in  Cicero,  and  not  found 
in  Caesar  in  this  use.] 

Prepositions  with  Ablative. 

561.  (1.)  Ab  (abs,  a),  away  from,  from  (opposite  of  ad). 
PLACE  :  ab  urbe  ducere,  to  march  from  the  city ;  a  te  abtre, 
to  go  away  from  you.  TIME  :  ab  urbe  condita,  from  or  after, 
the  founding  of  the  city ;  ab  hora  tertia,  from  the  third  hour. 
METAPHORICALLY  :  ab  defensione  desistere,  to  cease  from  the 
defense  ;  prope  ab  origine,  near  [i.  e.,  not  far  from]  the  ori- 
gin ;  ab  Hid  differre,  to  be  different  from  that ;  quartus  ab 
Arcesila,  fourth  from  \_i.  e.,  after]  Arcesilas  ;  a  patre  deductus 
ad  Scaevolam,  taken  by  my  father  to  Scaevola ;  abs  te  laudari, 
to  be  praised  by  you. 

(2.)  Absque,  away  from,  without,  except  (ante-classical  and 
post-classical).  Absque  paucls  syllabls,  except  a  few  sylla- 
bles (Gell.)- 

Absque  is  very  rare  except  in  Plautus  and  Terence,  where  it  is  used  only 
in  connection  with  the  imperfect  subjunctive  of  sum  as  an  equivalent  for  a 
conditional  clause.  Thus  :  — 

Quam  fortundtus  ceterls  sum  rebus  absque  una  hac  f oret,  how  lucky 
I  am  in  everything-  else,  were  it  not  for  this  one  thing-  [if  it  were  apart 
from  this  one  thing]  (Ter.,  Hec.,  601). 

(3.)  Coram  (first  used  as  preposition  by  Cicero),  before  the 
face  of,  in  presence  of.  Coram  genero  meo,  in  my  son-in-law's 
presence  ;  cdram  populo,  before  the  people  (Hor.). 


358  SYNTAX. 

(-4.)  Cum,  with,  in  company  with  (opposite  of  sine).  Cum 
coniugibus  et  llberls,  with  their  wives  and  children ;  wecum, 
with  me  ;  pariter  cum  ortu  soils,  at  sunrise. 

(5.)  De,  from  (between  ab  and  ex),  down  from.  PLACE  :  de 
flnibus  suis  exlre,  to  go  out  from  one's  boundaries  ;  de  digito 
anulum  detrahere,  to  take  a  ring  from  the  finger ;  de  caeti), 
from  heaven.  TIME  :  de  nocte,  by  night ;  de  tertia,  vigilm, 
in  the  third  watch.  METAPHORICALLY  :  poeta  de  populd,  a 
poet  from  the  people ;  de  slid  adventu,  about  his  arrival ;  de 
argento,  in  regard  to  the  money  ;  quid  de  fratre,  how  about 
brother  ? 

(6.)  Ex  (e),  out  of,  from  (opposite  of  in).  PLACE:  ex  op- 
pido  Ire,  to  go  out  of  the  town ;  e  portu,  from  the  harbor. 
TIME  :  ex  consulatu,  from,  or  after,  his  consulship ;  ex  eo  tem- 
pore,  from  that  time.  METAPHORICALLY  :  ex  te  quaerere,  to 
ask  of  you  ;  ex  lioc  quaestu,  from  this  profession  ;  statua  ex  aere 
facta,  a  statue  made  of  bronze ;  ex  mea  sententid,  in  accord- 
ance with  my  opinion  [wishes]  ;  e  re  publicd,  in  the  interest  of 
the  state  ;  e  regione,  in  a  straight  line. 

(7.)  Prae,  before,  in  front  of.  PLACE  :  prae  se  mittere, 
to  send  in  front  of  one's  self.  METAPHORICALLY  (more  fre- 
quent) :  prae  inetu.*  for  fear ;  prae  magnitudine,  in  compari- 
son with  their  size  ;  prae  iaculorum  multitudine,  on  account  of 
the  number  of  darts. 

(8.)  Pro,  before,  in  front  of.  PLACE  :  pr5  aede  Castoris, 
in  front  of  the  temple  of  Castor  ;  pr5  castrls,  before  the  camp  ; 
pr5  contione,  before  the  assembly.  METAPHORICALLY:  prd 
patrid,  in  behalf  of  the  country  ;  pro  te,  for,  or  instead  of,  you ; 
pro  beneficiis  tuis,  in  return  for  your  kindnesses ;  pro  digni- 
tate  sua,  in  accordance  with  his  own  dignity. 

(9.)  Sine,  without  (opposite  of  cum).  Sine  te,  without  you  ; 
sine  dubio,  without  doubt ;  sine  poend,  without  punishment. 

(10.)  Tenus,  so  far  as  (stands  after  its  case).  Aethiopia 
tenus,  as  far  as  Aethiopia ;  capulo  tenus,  as  far  as  the  hilt. 
(For  tenus  with  genitive,  see  431, /.) 

For  cases  with  other  parts  of  speech  used  like  prepositions,  see  390,  4, 
391,  1  and  3,  and  431,  g. 


CONNECTIVE   PARTICLES.  359 

NOTE.    Observe  the  different  meanings  of  the  following1  constructions :  — 


Romam 

to  Rome. 

ad  Romam 
in  Romam 

to  (the  neighborhood  of)  Rome, 
into  Rome. 

Roma 

from  Rome. 

ab  Roma 
ex  Roma 

from  (the  neighborhood  of)  Rome, 
from  (within)  Rome. 

Romae 

at  Rome. 

ad  Romam 

near  Rome. 

Also:  — 


CONJUNCTIONS  AND  OTHER  CONNECTIVE  PARTICLES. 

The  following  points  in  the  use  of  connectives  deserve 
attention. 

Words  for  AND  (Copulatives). 

562.  The  three  words  for  "  and,"  et,  que,  atque  (ac), 
are  used  as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  Et  is  the  general  connective,  meaning  simply 
"  and ;  "  as  :  — 

Cicero  et  Caesar  ;  qualis  et  quanta  sit,  of  what  sort  and 
extent  it  is  ;  virtus  ipsa  contemnitur  et  ostentatio  esse  dwitur, 
virtue  itself  is  scorned  and  said  to  be  [mere]  display  ;  multi 
et  *  praedarl  virl,  many  famous  men. 

(2.)  Que  implies  a  very  close  connection,  and  is  at- 
tached to  the  second  of  the  connected  words,  or,  when  it 
connects  phrases  or  clauses,  to  the  first  word  of  the  second 
phrase  or  clause.  Thus  :  — 

Ferro  ignlque,  with  fire  and  sword ;  dorm  mllitiaeque,  at 
home  and  in  the  field ;  senatus  populusque  Rdmanus  ;  sic 
ndtura  solitarium  nihil  amat  semperque  ad  aliquod  tam- 
quam  adminiculum  .  .  .  adnititur,  so  nature  loves  nothing 
solitary,  but  is  always  struggling  for  some  support,  as  it  were 
(Cic.,  Am.,  23,  88). 

a.  With  the  prepositions  a,  ab,  ad,  apud,  ob,  sub,  que  is 

*  A  connective  is  thus  regularly  used  between  two  adjectives  agreeing 
with  the  same  noun  in  Latin,  where  in  English  no  connective  is  preferred. 


360  SYNTAX. 

attached  to  the  object  rather  than   to  the  preposition  ;    as,  a 
meque,  and  by  me ;  ob  eamque  rem,  and  on  that  account. 

(3.)  Atque  (ac,  never  used  before  vowels  or  h)  is 
sometimes  used  as  a  simple  connective  of  two  words. 
Thus :  — 

Belld  ac  pace,  in  war  and  peace  ;  in  omni  caelo  atque  terra, 
in  all  heaven  and  on  earth;  honesta  atque  inhonesta.  things 
right  and  wrong ;  minuit  ac  inollit,  lessens  and  softens. 

But  atque  (ac)  is  more  commonly  used  to  give  greater 
prominence  to  the  last  one  of  the  connected  ideas  (=  "  and 
in  fact,"  "  and  particularly").  Thus  :  — 

Res  tanta  atque  tarn  atrox,  a  thing  so  great  and  in  fact  so 
monstrous  ;  vitium  levium  homhutm  atque  fcdlacium,  the  vice 
of  frivolous  and  in  fact  treacherous  men ;  ad  opes  tuendas  ac 
tenendas,  for  the  guarding  and  even  maintaining  his  power. 

a.  Atque    (ac)   is  less  common  than  et  or  que,  to  connect 
clauses. 

b.  Atque  (ac)  is  used  after  words  implying  a  comparison,  in 
the  sense  of  "  than  "  or  "  as."     Thus  :  — 

Virtus  eadem  in  homine  atque  deo  est,  virtue  is  the  same 
in  man  as  in  God  ;  vides  omnia  fere  contra,  ac  dicta  sunt, 
evenisse,  you  see  almost  everything  has  come  out  different 
from  what  was  said ;  aliter  de  aliis  ac  de  ndbls  iudicami(s,  we 
judge  of  others  otherwise  than  of  ourselves.  Cf.  the  similar 
use  of  "  nor  "  in  vulgar  English  ;  as,  "  he  '&  taller  nor  I  be." 

For  et  and  que  after  neque  (nee),  see  565,  d. 
"  atqui,  see  569,  1. 

563.  (1.)  For  "  both  .  .  .  and,"  et  .  .  .  et  is  the 
regular  classical  expression. 

a.  QiLe  .  .  .  que  is  chiefly  confined  to  the  poets  and  later 
writers,  though  also  used  sometimes  in  prose  when  the  first 
word  is  a  pronoun  ;  as,  seque  remque  publicam  curare,  to 
care  for  himself  and  the  state.  Et  .  .  .  que,  and  que  .  .  . 
et,  are  rarely  found. 


CONNECTIVE  PARTICLES.  361 

« 

b.  Qua  .  .  .  qua,  and  simul  .  .  .  simul  are  also  found.  So, 
too,  modo  .  .  .  modo,  turn  .  .  .  turn,  "  now  this  .  .  .  now 
that,"  tend  to  pass  into  the  weaker  meaning  "  both  .  .  .  and." 

(2.)  Cum  .  .'  .  turn,  "  both  .  .  .  and,"  "  not  only  .  .  . 
but  also,"  and  non  modo  {solum,  or  sometimes  tantum) 
.  .  .  sed  (verum)  etiam  *  throw  more  stress  upon  the 
second  of  the  ideas  connected.  Thus :  — 

Qua  quid  potest  esse  cum  fructu  laetius  turn  adspectu 
pulchrius  ?  cuius  quidem  non  utilitas  me  solum,  ut  ante 
dlxi,  sed  etiam  cultura  et  natura  ipsa  delectat,  than  which 
[the  vine]  what  can  be,  not  only  more  luxuriant  in  fruit,  but 
even  more  beautiful  to  look  at  ?  I  take  delight  not  only  in  its 
usefulness,  but  also  in  the  very  cultivation  of  it  and  study  of  its 
nature  (Cic.,  Sen.,  15,  53). 

a.  So  also  when  the  first  expression  or  both  expressions  are 
negative  :  non  modo  non,  etc.,  .  .  .  sed  etiam,  or  sed  ne  .  .  . 
quidem.     Thus  :  — 

Omnia  despicere  non  mod.5  non  laudl  verum  etiam 
vitio  dandum  puto,  I  think  that  to  look  down  upon  everything 
(i.  e.,  from  a  philosophic  height)  must  be  regarded  not  only  as 
no  glory,  but  even  as  a  defect ;  ego  non  mod5  tibi  non  Iras- 
cor  sed  ne  reprehendo  quidem  factum  tuum,  1  not  only  am 
not  angry  with  you,  but  do  not  even  find  fault  with  what  you 
have  done. 

b.  When  the  second  member  contains  ne  .  .  .  quidem,  if  the 
predicate  of  both  members  is  the  same,  the  second  non  is  regu- 
larly omitted  in  the  first  member.     Thus  :  — 

Quae  non  modd  amlco  sed  ne  libero  quidem  digna  est, 
which  [servile  flattery]  is  not  only  not  worthy  of  a  friend,  but 
not  even  of  a  freeman  (Cic.,  Am.,  24,  89). 

564.  When  more  than  two  things  are  connected,  either 
the  conjunction  is  omitted  altogether  (asyndetoii),  or  it  is 
used  between  each  two  words.  Thus  :  — 

Cicero,  Caesar,  ftallustius,  or  Cicero  et  Caesar  et  Sallus- 
tius. 

*  Sometimes  also  sed  alone. 


362  SYNTAX. 

a.  Sometimes   que  is  attached  to  the  last  word  of  a  series 
otherwise  unconnected,  although  in  Cicero  in  such  cases  (except 
where  the  last  word  is  alii,  ceteri,  or  the  like)  there  is  generally, 
if  not  always,  a  closer  connection  between  the  last  two  members 
of  the  series  which  makes  them  a  sort  of  unit  in  relation  to  the 
rest ;  as,  voltus,  voces,  motus  statusque  mutantur  (Off.,  i., 
29,  102),  where  the  motions  and  attitude  form  one  element  of  the 
series,  the  other  two  being  the   expression  of  the  face  and  the 
voice. 

b.  In  Livy  and  later  writers  the  last  two  words  are  sometimes 
connected  even  by  et  when  the   others  are  unconnected,  as  is 
done  in  English. 

c.  Asyndeton  is  especially  common  with  pairs  of  words  which 
together  form  a  sort  of  whole  ;  as,  equites  pedites  permlxti, 
horse  and  foot  all  mixed  up  together ;  ventls  remls,  with  wind 
and  oar;  and  in  fixed  expressions  like  L.  Pisone  A.  Gablnio 
consulibiis  ;  Itippiter  optimus  maximus. 

Words  for  OR  (Disjunctives). 

565.  (1.)  Of  the  words  for  "  or,"  aut  and  vel  are  used 
in  assertions  and  negations,  an  in  questions,  slve  in  condi- 
tional statements. 

(2.)  Aut  indicates  that  in  the  nature  of  the  case  only 
one  of  the  alternatives  is  possible ;  vel  (from  void)  indi- 
cates that  the  choice  of  the  alternative  rests  with  the  per- 
son concerned.  Thus  :  — 

Haec  aut  vera  sunt  aut  falsa,  this  is  either  true  or  false ; 
hie  vincendum  aut  moriendum  est,  under  these  circumstances 
we  must  conquer  or  die. 

Eiusmodi  coniunctionem  tectorum  oppidum  vel  urbem  ap- 
pellaverunt,  such  a  combination  of  buildings  they  called  a  town 
or  [if  you  please]  a  city  (Cic.,  Re  Pub.,  i.,  26,  41)  ;  transfer 
idem  ad  modestiam  vel  temperantiam,  apply  the  same  thing 
to  self-control  or  self-restraint  (Cic.,  Fin.,  ii.,  19,  60). 

Sed  utrum  tu  amwls  hodie  an  inimicls  tuls  datum's  ce- 
nam  ?  but  are  you  going  to  give  a  dinner  to  your  friends  or  to 
your  enemies  on  this  occasion  ?  (Plaut.,  Ps.,  iii.,  2,  88). 


DISJUNCTIVE   PARTICLES.  363 

Cumque  hominl  sive  natura  sive  quis  deus  nikil  mente 
praestdbilius  dedisset,  and  that  when  either  nature*  or  some 
god  had  given  man  nothing  more  excellent  than  his  mind  (Cic., 
Sen.,  12,  40). 

a.  Aut  or  vel  can  of  course  be  used  in  a  question  when  the 
alternative  does  not  apply  to  the  whole  question,  but  only  to  a 
particular  pair  of  words  or  phrases  in  it ;  as  :  — 

Nonne  haec  necessario  aut  vera  aut  falsa  sunt  ?  are  not 
these  things  necessarily  either  true  or  false  ? 

b.  Ve  is   milder  than  vel,  and  is  attached   like  que  to  the 
second  word  or  phrase  ;  as  :  — 

Sine  ulMs  praemils  fructibusve,  without  any  rewards  or 
emoluments ;  plus  minusve,  more  or  less  ;  bis  terve,  two  or 
three  times. 

c.  The  use  of  vel,  where  there  is  no  alternative,  in  the  sense 
of  "  if  you  will,"  "  even,"  is  of  course  adverbial,  not  conjuncti- 
val.     Thus :  — 

Nullaene  igitur  res  sunt  seniles,  quae  vel  Inflrmis  corpori- 
bus  animo  tamen  administrentur,  are  there  then  no  occupations 
befitting  old  men,  which,  even  though  their  bodies  be  feeble, 
they  can  yet  carry  on  with  their  minds  ?  (Cic.,  Sen.,  6,  15). 

Vel  is  especially  common  in  this  use  with  superlatives. 

d.  After  neque  (nee)  in  Latin  an  affirmative  clause  or  phrase 
is  added  with  et  or  que,  even  when  in  English   "not  .  .  .  but " 
is  preferred.     Thus  :  — 

Sed  nee  ilia  exstincta  sunt  alunturque  potius  et  augentur, 
but  that  [remembrance]  is  not  destroyed,  but  rather  nourished 
and  increased  (Cic.,  Am.,  27,  104). 

For  neve  =  "  and  not "  in  purpose  clauses,  see  482,  1. 

NOTE.  As  an  effective  example  of  the  use  of  different  connectives  may 
be  given  the  following  sentence  from  Cicero  (Off.,  i.,  25,  86)  :  — 

Hinc  apud  Atheniensls  mdgnae  discordiae,  in  nostrd  re  publicd  non  so- 
lum  seditiones,  Bed.  etiam  pestifera  bella  civilia :  quae  gravis  et  fortis 
civis  et  in  re  publicd  dignus  principdtu  fugiet  atque  oderit  trddetque  se 
totum  rel  publicae  neque  opes  aut  potentiam  consectdbitur  totamque  earn 
sic  tuebitur  ut  omnibus  consulat. 

*  I.  e.,  nature,  if  it  was  she. 


364  SYNTAX. 

Words  tor  BUT  (Adversatives). 

566.  (1).   Sed  and   (more  emphatic)  verum  are  the 
regular    adversative    conjunctions    corresponding   to   the 
English  "but.'*     Thus:  — 

Vera  died,  sed  neqmquam,  I  speak  the  truth,  but  to  no  pur- 
pose. 

Non  quid  nobls  utUe,  verum  quid  necessarium  sit,  quaeri- 
mus,  we  are  trying  to  find  out,  not  what  is  expedient  for  our- 
selves, but  what  is  necessary. 

(2.)  At*  marks  a  contrast  more  forcibly  than  sed  or 
verum,  and  especially  introduces  an  objection  to  a  line  of 
argument,  particularly  a  supposed  objection  of  an  oppo- 
nent. Thus :  — 

Magnae  dlvitiae  dHabuntur,  at  ingerii  egregia  facinora,  \in- 
mortalia  sunt,  even  great  riches  slip  away,  but  the  deeds  of  a 
noble  disposition  are  immortal ;  at  meinoria  minuitur,  but 
{[you  will  say]  the  memory  weakens. 

567.  Vero,  **  in  fact "  (standing  regularly  second  in 
its  clause ;  see  590,  a),  contrasts  something  sharply  with 
what  has  gone  before,  as  certainly  true.     Thus  :  — 

Haec  sunt  leviora,  ilia  ver5  gravia  ctfque  magna,  these 
things  are  rather  trifling,  but  those  are  really  weighty  and  great. 

a.  So  after  a  supposed  case  which  is  not  the  real  one,  nunc 
vero  or  nunc  alone  —  "  as  it  is,"  introduces  the  real  case. 
Thus:  — 

Ille  autem,  si  mehercule  hfc,  quod  agit,  numquam  antea,  co- 
gitasset,  tamen  Icutrocin&ntem  se  interficl  mallet  quam  exsulem 
vtvere  ;  nunc  vero,  etc.,  now  he,  if,  by  the  gods,  he  had  never 
before  meditated  the  move  he  is  now  making,  would  yet  prefer 
to  be  killed  in  border  warfare  than  to  live  in  exile  ;  but  as  it  is, 
etc.  (Cic.,  Cat.,  ii.,  7,  16). 

568.  Autcm  is  the  mildest  word  for  "but,"  and  fre- 
quently marks  a  transition  so  slight  that  in  English  "  how- 
ever," "  now,"  "  and,"  would  be  employed.     Thus  :  — 

*  A  form  ast  occurs  in  poetry. 


ADVERSATIVES.  —  ATQUI  AND    TAMEN.  365 

Croesus  hostium  vim  sese  perversurum  putavit,  pervertit 
autem  suam,  Croesus  thought  he  was  going  to  overthrow  the 
power  of  his  foes,  but  he  overthrew  his  own ;  nihil  praestabilius 
miM  videtur  quam  posse  dlcendo  homines  impellers  quo  veils, 
unde  autem  veils  deducere,  nothing  seems  to  me  finer  than  to 
be  able  by  oratory  to  persuade  men  to  what  you  will  and  again 
to  draw  them  away  from  what  you  will ;  M.  Octavius  Salonas 
oppugnare  Institute;  est  autem  oppidum  et  loci  natura  et 
colle  murittum,  Marcus  Octavius  began  to  besiege  Salonae  ;  it  is, 
by  the  way,  a  town  fortified  by  its  situation  upon  a  hill. 

a.  Parentheses  are  often,  as  in  the  last  example,  introduced 
by  autem. 

I.  Ceterum  is  also  used  for  "but"  (lit.,  as  to  the  rest),  es- 
pecially by  Livy.  Thus  :  — 

Nwidum  bellum  erat,  ceterum  iam  belli  causa  certdmina 
.  .  .  serebantur,  there  was  not  yet  war,  but  quarrels  were 
already  being  stirred  up  with  a  view  to  war  (Liv.,  xxi.,  6,  l). 

Atqui  and  Tamen. 

569.  (1.)  Atqui,  and  yet,  must  not  be  confounded 
with  atque.  It  stands  only  at  the  beginning  of  an  inde- 
pendent sentence,  and  asserts  emphatically  the  truth  of 
that  sentence  in  spite  of  what  went  before  it. 

"  0  rem  "  inquis  "  inexplicdbUem  !  "  atqui  explicanda  est, 
"  oh  inexplicable  situation,"  you  say ;  and  yet  it  must  be  ex- 
plained. 

(2.)  Tamen  is  the  regular  word  for  "  yet,"  u  however." 
It  does  not  stand  first  unless  the  concessive  character  of 
the  thing-  said  is  to  be  emphasized  rather  than  the  thing 
itself.  Thus:  — 

Pausanids  accusdtus  capitis  absolvitur,  imiltatur  tamen  pe- 
cunia,  Pausanias  is  accused  of  a  capital  crime  and,  though  not 
condemned  to  death,  is  yet  punished  by  a  fine ;  quae  tametsl 
Caesar  intellegebat,  tamen  quam  mltissime  potest  legatos  ap- 
pellat,  although  Caesar  understood  what  this  meant,  he  never- 
theless addressed  the  ambassadors  as  affably  as  possible. 


366  SYNTAX. 

Words  for  THEREFORE  (niatives). 

570.  Itaque  marks  a  thing  as  the  ACTUAL  consequence 
of  something  which  precedes ;  igitur  and  (less  common) 
ergo  introduce  the  LOGICAL  consequence  of  an  argument ; 
proinde(=  "accordingly")  is  used  only  with  commands 
and  exhortations  (imperative  and  subjunctive).     Thus :  — 

Aristldes  aequalis  fere  fuit  Themistocli  ;  itaque  cum  eo  de 
principatu  contendit,  Aristides  was  of  about  the  same  age  as 
Themistocles  :  therefore  he  was  his  rival  in  aiming  at  the  chief 
magistracy. 

Bestiolae  quaedam  unum  diem  vivunt  ;  ex  his  igitur  Tiora 
octavo,  quae  mortua  est,  provecta  aetdte  mortua  est,  certain  ani- 
malculse  live  but  one  day ;  one  of  these  therefore  which  dies  at 
the  eighth  hour,  dies  in  advanced  age. 

Proinde  foe  animum  tantum  habeas  quanta  opus  sit,  see 
therefore  that  you  have  as  much  courage  as  is  needed. 

a.  Igitur  does  not  often  stand  first,  except  in  Sallust,  Livy, 
and  the  later  writers. 

Words  for  FOR. 

571.  These  are  nam,  namque,  enim,  etenim.     Namque 
and   etenim   imply   a   little   closer   connection   than   the 
others,  and  are  much  less  common.     Emm  is  weaker  than 
nam,   and   in   classical   Latin    never    begins   its   clause. 
Thus  :  — 

Nam  maximum  omamentum  amicitiae  tollit,  qul  ex  ea  tol- 
lit verecundiam,  for  he  takes  away  the  greatest  ornament  of 
friendship  who  takes  respect  from  it  (Cic.,  Am.,  22,  82). 

Sic  se  res  habet ;  ut  enim  non  omne  vlnum  sic  rion  omnis 
natura  vetustate  coacescit,  so  the  matter  stands ;  for,  as  in  the 
case  of  wine,  not  every  disposition  grows  sour  with  age  (Cic., 
Sera.,  18,  65). 

a.  Neque  enim  is  much  commoner  than  nam  non,  and  in  gen- 
eral the  Romans  had  a  fancy  for  bringing  in  the  negative  as 
early  as  possible.  Hence,  usually,  are  found  neque,  nee  umquam, 
etc.,  rather  than  et  non,  et  numquam,  etc. 


CONNECTIVE   PARTICLES.  367 

Quldem,  Sane,  Vero,  Certe,  Profecto,  Saltern,  etc. 

NOTE.  These  words  are  rather  adverbs  emphasizing  the  word  before 
them  than  conjunctions,  but  their  use  in  connecting1  sentences  by  throwing 
emphasis  upon  the  first  word  in  their  clause  makes  it  easier  to  understand 
them  in  connection  with  the  preceding. 

572.  Quidem  is  the  weakest  of  the  above  words,  and  is 
often  best  rendered  in  English  by  putting  extra  stress  of 
voice  upon  the  word  before  it ;  sane  and  vero  give  per- 
haps the  most  emphasis.  Thus  :  — 

Vim  hoc  quidem  est  adferre  /  quid  enim  refert  qua  nie 
ratione  cogatis  ?  cogitis  certe,  THIS  is  to  apply  force ;  for 
what  matters  it  how  you  force  me  ?  force  me  you  certainly  do 
(Cic.,  Am.,  8,  26). 

Ego  vero  non  gravarer,  si  mihl  ipse  confiderem,  I  certainly 
should  make  no  objection  if  I  had  confidence  in  myself  (Cic., 
Am.,  5,  17). 

Profecto  negare  non  potes,  surely  you  cannot  deny  it  (Cic., 
Verr.,  ii.,  18,  44). 

Eripe  mihi  hunc  dolorem  aut  minue  saltern,  take  this  grief 
from  me  or  at  least  alleviate  it  (Cic.,  Att.,  ix.,  6,  5). 

a.  Equidem  is  used,  as  a  rule,  rather  than  quidem,  if  the  parti- 
cle is  to  be  connected  with  an  ego  (expressed  or  implied)  ;  as  :  — 

Id  equidem  egd  certo  scio,  that  I  know  for  sure  (Plant., 
Bacc.,  iii.,  3,  3) ;  "  nihil"  inquit  "  equidem  novl,"  "  I  know 
nothing  about  it,"  he  says  (Cic.,  Dw.,  i.,  6,  11). 

But :  Ex  me  quidem  nihil  audlre  potuisses,  you  could 
have  heard  nothing  from  me  (Cic.,  N.  Z>.,  i.,  21,  57). 

Equidem  is,  however,  occasionally  used  with  the  second  and 
third  persons. 

b.  Ne  .  .  .  quidem,  "  not  .  .  .  even,"  "  not  .  .  .  either,"  takes 
the    emphatic  word  or  words  between  its  parts.       (Cf.  563, 
2,  a.) 

c.  Si  quidem  corrects  a  previous  statement,  and  is  equivalent 
to  "  that  is,  if  ;  "  as  :  — 

Apud  Graecos  anfiquissimum  est  genus  poetarum,  si  qui- 
dem Homerus  fuit  ante  Romam  conditam,  among  the  Greeks 


368  SYNTAX. 

poets  are  a  very  ancient  class  —  that  is,  if  Homer  lived  before 
the  founding  of  Rome. 

Etiam  and  Quoque. 

573.  Etiam,  even,   also,  generally  stands  before  the 
word  or  phrase  which  it  emphasizes  ;  quoque,*  also,  even, 
always   after  the  word    it  emphasizes,  or  second  in  the 
clause  when  it  applies  to  it  as  a  whole.     Thus  :  — 

lustitiam  qul  tollunt,  etiam  adversus  de5s  impil  iudi- 
candl  sunt,  those  who  do  away  with  justice  are  to  be  judged 
disloyal  even  towards  the  gods. 

Qua  tempestate  K artJiagin lenses  pleraeque  Africae  imperi- 
tabant,  Cyrenenses  quoque  magni  fuere,  at  the  time  when 
the  Carthaginians  ruled  most  of  Africa,  the  Cyrenaeans  also 
were  great  (Sail.,  Jug.,  79,  2). 

a.  JEt  is  rarely  used  for  etiam  in  classical  prose,  except  with 
certain  particles,  nam,  qnin,  *sed,  sic,  simul,  verum,  etc.,  and 
with  the  demonstrative  pronouns  or  ipse  ;  as  :  — 

Et  illud  videndum  quanta  magis  homines  mala  fugiant, 
quam  sequantur  bona,  we  must  notice  this  also,  how  much 
more  men  shun  the  wrong  than  they  pursue  the  right  (Cic., 
Part,  dr.,  26,  90). 

In  Aequds  transiit  et  ipsos  bellum  molientes,  he  marched 
over  into  the  land  of  the  Aequi  [who  were]  themselves  planning 
war  (Liv.,  vi.,  2,  14). 

INTERROGATIVE  PARTICLES. 
Single  Questions. 

574.  JYe  is  always  used  to  ask  questions  simply  for  in- 
formation, and  does  not  show  whether  an  affirmative  or  a 
negative  answer  is  expected.    It  is  always  attached  encliti- 
cally  to  an  emphatic  word  in  its  clause,  usually  to  the  first 
word  (?*.  e.,  the  most  emphatic  one).     Thus :  — 

Visne  fortunam  experiri  ?  do  you  want  to  try  fortune  ? 
omnisne  pecunia  soluta  est  ?  is  all  the  money  paid  ? 

*  Not  to  be  confused  with  quoque  (ablative  of  quisque,  each). 


INTERROGATIVE   PARTICLES.  369 

a.  Ne  can  be  attached  to  any  kind  of    word  except  preposi- 
tions of  one  syllable.     Cf.  in  nostrane potestate,  in  our  power? 
(Cic.,  Fin.,  ii,  32,  104). 

b.  Sometimes  the  context  or  the  situation  shows  whether  an 
affirmative  or  a  negative  answer  is  expected,  especially  with 
words  of  thinking  or  perceiving.     Thus  :  — 

Videsne  abunddre  me  otio,  do  you  not  see  that  I  have 
plenty  of  leisure  ?  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  ii.,  11,  26)  ;  ubi  tua  aut  quails 
potesne  dicere,  can  you  say  where  or  what  your  own  [mind 
is]  ?  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  27,  67). 

c.  Ne  is  occasionally  appended  to  another  interrogative  word ; 
as,  uterne,  utrumne,  quantane,  numne. 

d.  In  the  dramatic  and  other  poets  vin  ?  viden  ?  satin  ?  etc., 
are  often  found  for  vime  ?  videsne  ?  satisne  ?  etc. 

575.  Ndnne  is  used  to  introduce  a  question  to  which 
an  affirmative  answer  is  expected.     Thus  :  — 

Canis  ndnne  lupo  similis  est,  is  not  a  dog  like  a  wolf  ? 

a.  So  also  nemone,  nihilne,  nwnquamne,  nusquamne. 

b.  Ndnne  is  not  used  by  Plautus  and  is  very  rare  in  Terence, 
the  simple  ne  being  used  instead.     Cf.  574,  b. 

576.  Num  is  used  to  introduce  a  question  to  which  a 
negative  answer  is  expected.     Thus  :  — 

Ntun  jraoKi*  me  tarn  dementem  fuisse  ?  do  you  imagine  that 
I  was  so  mad  ? 

577.  Sometimes  questions  expressing  wonder  or  disap- 
proval are  put  without  any  particle  ;  as  :  — 

Rogas  ?  you  ask  ?  can  you  ask  ?  tu  id  nesciebas  ?  you  did  n't 
know  it  ?  Archiam  ego  rion  diligam  ?  shall  I  not  esteem  Archias  ? 

578.  An  is  used  to  introduce  a  single   direct   ques- 
tion (1)  when  it  implies  a  supposed  answer  to  a  previous 
question,  or  (2)  when  it  strengthens  a  previous  statement 
by  hinting  that  the  thing  suggested  in  the  question  is  in- 
conceivable.    Thus  :  — 

(1.)  Quid  ad  me  venitis?  an  speculandi  causa,  why  come 
ye  to  me  ?  for  the  purpose  of  spying  ? 


370  SYNTAX. 

(2.)  Oratorem  Irdscl  minime  decet ;  an  tibi  Irdscl  turn 
videtur  cum  quid  in  causls  vehement lius  dldt,  it  is  not  at  all 
becoming  for  an  orator  to  give  way  to  wrath ;  or  does  he  per- 
haps seem  to  you  to  give  way  to  wrath  when  he  says  something 
violently  in  pleading  a  case  ? 

579.  In  indirect  questions  ne  and  num  are  used  without 
appreciable  difference ;  nonne  implies  the  answer  "  yes." 
Thus :  — 

Quaeritur,  idemne  sit  pertindcia  et  perseverantia,  the  ques- 
tion is,  whether  persistence  and  perseverance  are  the  same. 

Romdrii  speculdbantur,  num  sollicitdti  animi  socidrum  ab 
rege  Persed  essent,  the  Romans  were  trying  to  find  out  whether 
the  feelings  of  their  allies  had  been  alienated  by  king  Perseus. 

Quaesierds  ex  me.  n5nne  putdrem  inveriiri  verum  potuisse, 
you  [had]  asked  me  whether  I  did  not  think  the  truth  might 
have  been  found  out. 

a.  The  phrases  kaud  scio  an,  riescw  an,  dubito  an,  are  apt  to 
imply  an  affirmative  answer,  and  are  thus  often  equivalent  to 
the  English  •*  I  am  inclined  to  think."     Thus  :  — 

Aristotelem  baud  scio  an  recte  dlxerim  principem  philo- 
sophorum,  I  am  inclined  to  think  I  could  justly  call  Aristotle  the 
chief  of  philosophers. 

b.  Forsitan  (i.  e.,  fors  sit  an)  always  takes  the  subjunctive  in 
good  prose ;  as,  f  orsitan  quaeratis,  qul  iste  terror  sit,  per- 
haps you  ask,  what  that  alarm  is  (Cic..  Hose.  Am.,  2,  5).     For- 
tasse  takes  the  indicative. 

Disjunctive   Questions. 

580.  DISJUNCTIVE    or    DOUBLE    questions    (whether 
direct  or  indirect)  are  introduced  by  utrum  .  .  .  an,  or 
ne  (num)  .  .  .  an,  or  by  an  alone  with  the  second  member, 
the  first  having  no  particle.     Thus  :  — 

Utrum  nescls  quam  alte  adscenderis  an  pro  nihilo  idputas, 
do  you  not  know  how  high  you  have  climbed,  or  do  you  count  it 
as  nothing  ? 


DISJUNCTIVE  QUESTIONS.  371 

Romamne  veniam^&n  hie  maneam,  an  Arplnum  fugiam  ? 
shall  I  go  to  Rome,  or  stay  here,  or  fly  to  Arpinum  ?  perquiritur, 
virtus  suamnQ  propter  dignitatem  an  propter  fructum  ali- 
quern  expetatur,  the  question  [for  our  exhaustive  discussion, 
per~\  is.  whether  virtue  is  desired  for  its  own  worth  or  for  some 
reward. 

Postrema  syllaba  brevis  an  longa  sit,  in  versu  nihil  refert, 
it  makes  no  difference  in  verse  whether  the  last  syllable  is  short 
or  long. 

a.  In  short,  sharp  indirect  questions  of  two  members,  ne  is 
sometimes  used  with  the  second  member,  the  first  having  no 
particle.     Thus  :  — 

Datames  experlrl  voluit  verum  f  alsumne  sibi  esset  relatum, 
Datames  wished  to  see  whether  a  true  or  a  false  report  had 
been  brought  to  him. 

b.  For  an  occasionally  anne  is  used  ;  as  :  — 

Quaerendum  est,  utrum ,  una  species  sit  anne  plures,  we 
much  ask  whether  there  is  one  species  or  several. 

c.  Real  disjunctive  questions  must  be  carefully  distinguished 
from  single  questions,  which  involve  alternatives  in  points  of 
detail  merely.     In  these  last,  not  an  but  aut  or  vel  is  used. 
Thus,  in  quid  ergo  ?  solem  dicam  aut  lunam  aut  caelum  deum, 
the  question  is,  whether  such  things  as  the  sun  and  moon  and 
sky  are  to  be  called  gods ;  but  in  solem  dicam  an  lunam  an 
caelum  deum,  the  question  is,  to  which  one  of  the  three  the 
name  of  god  is  to  be  given.     (Cf.  565,  2,  a.) 

581.  If  the  second  member  of  a  disjunctive  question  is 
negative,  it  is  introduced  by  annon  or  by  necne.  Annon 
is  more  common  for  direct  questions,  necne  for  indirect. 
Thus  :  - 

Isne  est,  quern  quaero,  annon,  is  that  the  man  I  am  look- 
ing for  or  not  ? 

Di  utrum  sint  necne  sint,  quaeritur,  the  question  is  whether 
there  are  or  are  not  gods. 


372  SYNTAX. 

YES  and  NO. 

582.  The  answer  to  a  question  in  Latin  is  regularly 
given  by  repeating  its  emphatic  word  for  affirmation,  and 
by  repeating  that  word  with  non  for  denial.     Thus  :  — 

Mene  vis  ?  te.     Do  you  want  me?     Yes. 

Estnefrater  intus?  non  est.     Is  brother  at  home  ?    No. 

a.  Sometimes  also  an  affirmative  answer  is  given  simply  by 
ita,  ita  verot  ita  est,  etiam,  sane,  quidem,  certe,  or  maxime  ; 
a  negative  answer  by  non,  non  ita.  non  vero,  or  minime. 

b.  Immo  and  immo  vero  give  a  strong  affirmative  answer  to 
a  question  in  which  some  doubt  is  latent,  or  contradict  strongly 
a  negative  question.     Thus  :  — 

Non  igitur  praestat  patria  omnibus  officils  ?  imrno  vero, 
is  not  then  patriotism  more  important  than  all  other  relations 
of  duty  ?  Yea,  verily. 

Num  Sulla  Romae  fuit  ?  immo  longe  afuit,  was  Sulla  at 
Rome  ?  On  the  contrary,  he  was  far  away. 

INTERJECTIONS. 

583.  The  INTERJECTIONS  are  rather  exclamatory  sounds 
than  words  in  the  proper  sense,  and  have  no  syntax.    The 
chief  Latin  interjections  are  as  follows  :  — 

a  !  (ah  /)  ah !  eu  !  well  done ! 

aha  !  ah !  aha !  euge  !  bravo !  good ! 

apage  !  be  gone  !  euax  f  hail !  (used  by  Plautus 
atat !  (atatte !  atatatae  !  etc.),         only). 

oh !  alas  !  lo !  euhoe  f  hail ! 

au  !  oh  !  ha  f  (hahae  f    ha  f  ha  !  ha  f) 
ecce  f  lo !  behold !  hold  !  ho  ! 

ehemf  ha!  what!  hei  f  (eif)  woe!  ah  me  ! 

eheu !  alas !  hem  !    (em  /)     oho !    indeed ! 
eho  !    (ehodum  f)  ho !    holloa  !         alas ! 

eia  !  (heia  !)  ah  !  indeed  !  heu  f  oh !  oh !  alas ! 

ew  /  lo  !  behold  !  heus  !  ho  there  !  say ! 


INTERJECTIONS.  —  ARRANGEMENT   OF  WORDS.     373 

hui!  hah!  ho!  oh!  phu I  (fu/)  foh!  fugh! 

id  !  ho  !  hurrah !  hail !  phy  !  pish !  tush  ! 

malum  !  the  deuce!  pro!  (pro/if)  oh! 

of  (ok!)  O!  oh!  ah!  st !  hush!  whist! 

ohe  !  ho !  holloa !  tatae  !  strange  !  so  ! 

oho  !  oho  !  aha  !  vae  !  woe !  alas  ! 

oi !  oh  me!  alas!  vah!  (vaha!)  ah!  alas! 
papae  !  strange ! 

a.  Of  these  o,  ecce,  ehem,  en,  papae,  tatae,  vah,  express  AS- 
TONISHMENT; euhoe,   euax,  id,  express  JOY  or  ECSTASY;  eheu, 
hei,  heu,  oi,  vae,  express  SORROW  ;  eho,  ehodum,  heus,  ohe,  are 
used  to  CALL  ATTENTION  ;  eia,  euge,  heia,  express  PRAISE  ;  pro, 
proh,  are  used  in  ASSEVERATION. 

b.  To  the  interjections  may  be  added  the  mild  oaths :  Eccere, 
by  Ceres !  Ecastor,  by  Castor !  gracious !  Edepol,  or  Pol,  by 
Pollux  !  gad  !  mehercule,  (hercle,  etc.),  by  Hercules  !  thunder! 
me   dius  fidius,    by   Jove !    and   the  expressions    Dl  meliora 
(duint),  God   forbid !    (lit.,  give   better  things)  ;    D1  vostram 
/idem,  Heavens !    (lit.,  O  gods,  [I  appeal  to]  your  honor)  ;  pro 
deorum  atque   hominum  fidem,    heavens    and  earth !    pro  dl 
immortales,  by  the  immortal  gods  !  peril,  oh  dear  !   (lit.,  I  am 
ruined),  etc. 

c.  Here  may  also  be  mentioned  the  affirmative  particle  ne, 
verily  (not  to  be  confused  with  the  negative*  ne).     It  is  used 
only  with   personal  pronouns   and  demonstrative  pronouns  or 
adverbs.     Thus :  — 

Ne  eg5  homo  infellx  ful,  verily  I  was  an  unlucky  being 
(Plaut.,  Am.,  i.,  1,  172). 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  WORDS  {Ordo  verborum). 

NOTE.  One  of  the  most  important  differences  between  Latin 
sentences  and  English  sentences  is  the  way  in  which  the  words 
are  arranged.  In  English  ordinarily  the  subject  comes  first 
(an  adjective  which  modifies  it  standing,  however,  before  it), 
the  verb  next,  then  the  object,  and  so  on.  The  lack  of  case- 
endings  makes  such  an  arrangement  necessary  in  order  to  tell 


374  SYNTAX. 

how  the  words  are  related  to  each  other.  In  Latin,  on  the 
other  hand,  the  gender,  number,  case,  mood,  tense,  etc.,  of  the 
words  are  shown  by  their  endings  simply,  and  their  order  is 
used  for  another  purpose,  namely  :  — 

584.  ID  Latin  sentences  the  words  are  arranged  chiefly 
to  show  which  are  the  more  emphatic   ones,  i.  e.  (roughly 
speaking),  which  would  receive  greater  stress  of  voice  in 
English. 

585.  This  arrangement  is  based  upon  the  very  simple 
principle  that  the  first  word   in   any  combination   is  more 
emphatic  than  the  second,  the  second  more  emphatic  than 
the  third,  and  so  on.     Thus  :  — 

Bonus  vir  means  "  a  GOOD  man,"  vir  bonus  means  "  a  good 
MAX  ; "  latrant  canes  means  "  dogs  BARK,"  canes  Idtrant 
means  "  DOGS  bark." 

In  the  same  way,  Gallos  Caesar  vlcit  means  "  Caesar  con- 
quered THE  GAULS  ; "  and  verberat  crudeliter  servos  means 
"  he  is  BEATIXG  the  slaves  cruelly" 

NOTE  1.  When  the  expression  becomes  longer  and  more 
complex  the  shades  of  relative  emphasis  are  too  numerous  and 
too  fine  to  be  at  all  adequately  expressed  by  stress  of  voice, 
but  a  little  practice  in  reading  Latin  so  as  to  understand  it 
without  translating  enables  one  to  feel  the  force  and  delicacy 
of  the  emphases  indicated  by  the  word-arrangement.  The  pupil 
should  accustom  himself  thus  to  feel  the  differences  in  arrange- 
ments like  the  following :  — 

(1.)  Omnes  herl  Romam  venimus. 
Heri  Romam  omnes  venimus. 
Romam  omnes  herl  venimus. 
Venimus  herl  omnes  Romam. 

(2.)  Hi  pueri  facile  Latine  scribunt. 
Pueri  hi  Latine  facile  scrlbunt. 
Scrlbunt  facile  hi  pueri  Latine. 
Latine  facile  scrlbunt  hi  pueri. 
Facile  hi  pueri  scribunt  Latine. 


ARRANGEMENT   OF   WORDS.  375 

(3.)  Fortis  miles  numquam  tergum  vertet. 
Numquam  miles  fortis  tergum  vertet. 
Tergum  fortis  miles  numquam  vertet. 
Vertet  numquam  fortis  miles  tergum. 

NOTE  2.  In  all  except  the  very  simplest  sentences,  some  of  the  words 
are  used  as  single  units  in  the  sentence,  others  are  grouped  in  phrases,  and 
these  last  have  more  complicated  relations  of  emphasis  ;  for  instance,  a 
relation  to  the  other  words  of  their  own  phrase  and  a  relation  to  the  sen- 
tence as  a  whole.  -  Now  it  is  chiefly  the  relation  of  emphasis  which  a  word 
has  to  its  own  phrase  that  we  mark  by  stress  of  voice  in  English.  There- 
fore for  the  English-speaking-  student  of  Latin  it  is  especially  necessary 
to  observe  how  the  words  are  grouped  in  phrases  ;  also  to  notice  that  the 
emphasis  of  a  phrase  may  be  increased  by  separating  its  words  from  each 
other,  because  then  the  attention  has  to  be  held  over  from  the  first  word  of 
the  phrase  until  its  last  word  arrives  to  complete  it.  Compare  the  ar- 
rangements in  groups  (2)  and  (3)  above. 

The  following  practical  rules  on  points  of  detail  may  be  given  :  — 

586.  In  combinations  of  a  noun  and  an  adjective  the 
noun  comes  first,  unless  the  adjective  is  distinctly  em- 
phatic* 

587.  ADJECTIVE  PRONOUNS    (meus,   alius,   hie,   ille, 
etc.)  are  more  often  found  before  their  nouns,  because 
when  used  at  all  they  are  oftener  emphatic  than  not. 

*  The  following  considerations  will  make  the  reason  for  this  rule  clear  : 
In  such  an  expression  as  "dogs  bark"  there  are  two  contrasts  latent,  a 
contrast  between  dogs  and  other  animals  and  a  contrast  between  barking 
and  other  actions.  If  we  emphasize  "dogs,"  we  bring  the  one  contrast 
more  sharply  before  the  hearer's  attention;  if  we  emphasize  "bark,"  we 
do  the  same  by  the  other  contrast.  In  expressions,  however,  consisting  of 
a  noun  and  an  adjective,  there  are  further  possibilities.  If  we  say  "a 
brick  house,"  we  do,  as  before,  contrast  sharply  a  brick  house  with  some 
other  kind  of  house  ;  but  if  we  say  "  a  brick  Aouse,"  while  we  may  mean 
thus  sharply  to  contrast  a  house  of  brick  with  other  buildings  of  brick,  we 
may  also  mean  simply  to  mark  the  complex  idea  "  brick  house  "  as  a  single 
thing  which  we  make  the  subject  of  our  thought.  There  is  a  subtle  con- 
nection between  our  word  accent  and  stress  of  voice  which  makes  us  utter 
the  word  '  '  house  '  '  in  this  last  case  somewhat  more  forcibly  than  the  word 
"brick,"  and  the  Roman  did  the  analogous  thing  in  putting  the  noun  be- 
fore the  adjective  in  such  cases.  When  there  is  a  doubt  about  the  proper 
position  in  any  given  case,  it  will  be  found  that  if  the  adjective  is  put  first, 
not  belonging  there,  the  effect  is  one  of  over-emphasis  (turgid  rhetoric). 


OF  THR 


376  SYNTAX. 

538.  ADVERBS  are  apt  to  be  more  emphatic  than  the 
verbs,  participles,  or  adjectives  which  they  modify,  and 
therefore  rather  more  commonly  stand  before  them. 

589.  PREPOSITIONS   regularly  stand  just  before  their 
nouns,  or  with  an  adjective  or  genitive  intervening.    (But 
see  431,  d  and  e.) 

590.  CONJUNCTIONS  and  other  connectives  stand  be- 
tween the  words  or  clauses  which  they  connect. 

a.  The  following  words  stand  after  the  word  which  they  em- 
phasize, or  occupy  the  second  place  in  a  clause  when  they  apply 
to  it  as  a  whole  (hence  they  are  called  POST-POSITIVE)  :  — 

autem,  but,  besides,  and.  quidem,  in  fact. 

enim,  for.  quoque,  also,  even. 

igitur,  therefore,  then.  vero,  in  truth,  but. 

interim,  meanwhile. 

b.  Que,  and  (and  ve,  or  *),   are  attached   enclitically  to  the 
second  of  two  words  which  they  connect,  and,  when  they  con- 
nect phrases  or  clauses,  to  the  first  word  of  the  second  phrase  or 
clause.     Thus  :  — 

Plas  minusve,  more  or  less ;  senatus  populusque  Rd- 
manus,  the  senate  and  people  of  Rome ;  corpora  curare  eos  iussit 
seque  paraios  ad  omnia  habere,  he  bade  them  take  rest  and  re- 
freshment and  be  ready  for  any  development  of  affairs. 

591.  RELATIVE  and  INTERROGATIVE  PRONOUNS,  besides 
their  pronominal  functions,  also  serve  as  connectives,  and 
therefore  stand  first  in  their  clauses   (sometimes  with  a 
preposition  before  them). 

592.  The  VOCATIVE  CASE  generally,  and  the  verb  in- 
quam  always,  stand  after  one  or  more  words. 

593.  A  word  may  often  be  made  particularly  emphatic 
by  being  put  even  before  the  particle  or  pronoun  which  in- 
troduces a  sentence.     Thus :  — 

Haec  cum  Caesar  I  nunttata  essent,  leg  aids  ad  se  venire  ius- 
sit, when  this  was  reported  to  Caesar,  he  ordered  the  ambassa- 
dors to  come  to  him. 

*  Cf .  also  the  interrogative  ne,  574. 


THE   PERIOD.  377 

THE  PERIOD  (Periodus). 

594.  By  a  PERIOD  is  usually  meant  a  sentence  consist- 
ing of  a  main  clause  and  one,  or,  generally,  several  subor- 
dinate clauses,  in  which  the  parts  are  gracefully  balanced 
and  the  sense  is  not  completed  until  the  end.     But  any 
sentence  in  which  complete  sense  is  not  made  until  the 
last  word  is  reached  may  be  called  a  periodic  sentence. 

595.  The  VERB,  from  its  nature,  makes  complete  sense, 
unless  some  word  before  it  indicates  the  contrary ;  and 
therefore  in  a  periodic  construction  the  verb  tends  to  stand 
last. 

a.  In  dependent  clauses  this  tendency  of  the  verb  to  stand 
last  is  very  much  stronger  than  in  independent  clauses. 

NOTE.  The  Romans  were  especially  fond  of  a  more  or  less  complete 
periodic  structure  of  sentences  in  connected  writing.  This  is  only  another 
way  of  saying  that  it  was  a  Roman  habit  of  thought  to  put  the  least  em- 
phatic part  of  a  statement  into  verb  form.* 

596.  (1.)  It  follows  from  the  tendency  to  a  periodic 
structure  that  in  Latin  almost  all  kinds  of  subordinate 
clauses  more  commonly  stand  before  their  main  clause ; 
but :  — 

(2.)  RESULT  CLAUSES  generally,  CAUSAL  and  RELATIVE 
CLAUSES  not  uncommonly,  and  others  sometimes,  come 
after  the  main  clause. 

a.  The  difference    between    a   periodic    and    a   non-periodic 
structure  of  sentence  may  be  seen  in  the  following  :  — 
PERIODIC.     ScTpio,  ut  Hannibalem  ex  Italia  deduceret,  exer- 

citum  in  Africam  traiecit. 

NON-PERIODIC.     ScTpio  in  Africam  traiecit  exercitum,  ut  Han- 
nibalem ex  Italia  deduceret. 
NOTE  1.     It  is  a  very  common  form  of  period  to  begin  the  sentence  thus 

*  The  proportion  of  sentences  with  the  verb  last  in  Cicero  is  somewhat 
more  than  fifty  per  cent,  in  Caesar  about  seventy-five  per  cent,  and  in 
Latin  prose  in  general  rather  less  than  sixty  per  cent. 


378  SYNTAX. 

with  some  word  belonging  to  the  main  clause,  then  to  insert  the  subordi- 
nate clause  or  clauses,  and  finally  to  bring  in  the  rest  of  the  main  clause 
with  its  verb  standing  last.  This  is,  in  fact,  the  kind  of  sentence  to  which 
the  name  "  period  "  most  properly  applies,  periodus  being  the  Greek  word 
vepioSos  (irepi.  round,  686s,  way,  road)  =  Latin  ambitus,  a  going  round, 
t.  e.,  a  coming  back  to  the  starting-point. 

NOTE  2.  The  heaping  of  finite  verbs  at  the  end  of  a  period  should  be 
avoided.  Generally  there  is  an  infinitive  or  other  close  modifier  of  the 
main  verb  which  emphasis  allows  to  be  kept  for  the  last  place  but  one, 
thus  separating  the  verb  of  the  dependent  clause  from  the  main  verb, 
which  closes  the  period. 

NOTE  3.  The  fondness  of  the  Romans  for  simplicitv  and  directness 
created  in  their  speech  a  certain  tendency  to  make  the  most  emphatic  part 
of  their  thought  also  grammatically  the  subject  of  the  sentence,  —  in  other 
words,  the  emphatic  word  (occupying  the  first  place  in  the  sentence)  is  a 
little  oftener  the  subject  than  not.  The  common  doctrine,  however,  which 
teaches  that  the  regular  order  for  a  Latin  sentence  is  '*  subject  first  and 
verb  last,"  is  erroneous,  and  besides  causing  various  misconceptions  in 
points  of  detail  gives  the  learner  a  very  uu-Latin  mechanical  style.  While 
it  is  true  that  of  the  sentences  which  have  a  subject  expressed  about  fifty- 
two  per  cent  have  the  subject  first,  and  about  fifty-seven  per  cent  have 
the  verb  last,  only  about  thirty-four  per  cent  have  both  subject  first  and 
verb  last.  In  those  sentences,  furthermore,  which  have  no  subject  ex- 
pressed, the  verb  comes  last  only  about  fifty-eight  times  out  of  a  hundred. 

597.  (1.)  In  historical  narrative,  philosophical  expo- 
sition, and  other  continuous  writing,  successive  sentences 
are  more  closely  united  into  a  series  in  Latin  than  in 
English. 

(2.)  This  is  done  largely  by  choosing  as  the  most  em- 
phatic word  to  be  placed  first  in  "each  sentence  one  that 
refers  (especially  by  way  of  contrast)  to  something  men- 
tioned in  the  latter  part  of  the  previous  sentence.  Ex- 
amples are :  — 

Sed  quis  ego  sum  aut  quae  est  in  me  fatultas  ?  doct5rum 
est  ista  consuetude  eaque  Graecorum,  ut  ils  pondtur  de  quo  dis- 
putent  quamvis  subito,  but  who  am  I  or  what  skill  is  there  in 
me  ?  To  the  trained  philosophers,  and  those,  too,  Greek  philo- 
sophers, belongs  that  habit  of  allowing  a  question  to  be  set  them 
for  discussion  on  the  spur  of  the  moment  (Cic.,  Am.,  5,  17). 


ANAPHORA   AND   CHIASMUS.  379 

Qua  re  sibi  habeant  sapientiae  nomen  et  invidiosum  et  ob- 
scurum  ;  concedant  ut  viri  bom  f uerint.  Ne  id  quidem 
f acient :  negabunt  id  nisi  sapienti  posse  concedi,  therefore  let 
them  keep  for  themselves  the  invidious  and  vague  word  "  phi- 
losopher," but  grant  that  these  people  were  good  MEN.  They 
will  not  do  even  THIS  :  they  will  say  it  cannot  be  granted  of  any 
one  but  a  philosopher  (Cic.,  Am.,  5,  18). 

Sollemne  adlatum  ex  Arcadia  instituisse  Pana  vener antes 
.  .  .  quern  Romam  deinde  vocaverunt  Inuum.  Huic  dedi- 
tis  Iudicr5,  cum  sollemne  notum  esset,  msidiatos  ob  iram 
praedae  am/issae  latrones,  cum  Romulus  vl  se  defendisset, 
Remum  cepisse,  captura  regl  Amulio  tradidisse,  ultro  ac- 
cusantes.  Criminl  maxim,e  dabant,  etc.,  he  had  established 
a  sacred  festival  brought  from  Arcadia,  consisting  of  certain 
rites  performed  by  young  men  in  honor  of  Pan,  whom  the 
Romans  afterwards  called  Inuus.  Since  this  was  a  well  known 
event,  the  robbers,  who  were  full  of  rage  at  the  loss  of  their 
booty,  made  a  plot  to  attack  [the  shepherd  boys]  while  busied 
with  the  festival.  Romulus  succeeded  in  defending  himself,  but 
they  took  Remus,  and,  having  taken  him,  handed  him  over  to 
king  Amulius  with  a  gratuitous  accusation.  Their  main  charge 
was,  etc.  (Liv.,  i.,  5,  2-3). 

ANAPHORA  AND  CHIASMUS. 

598.  The  Romans  had  also  a  great  fancy  for  antitheses, 
or  the  setting  off  against  each  other  of  the  corresponding 
parts  of  Jbwo  expressions  or  statements. 

(1.)  When  the  corresponding  parts  of  two  or  more 
phrases,  clauses,  or  sentences  stand  in  the  same  order, 
the  arrangement  is  called  ANAPHORA.* 

(2.)  When  the  corresponding  parts  stand  in  opposite 
orders,  the  arrangement  is  called  CHIASMUS,  or  the  chias- 
tic  order.  Thus  :  — 

*  From  the  Greek  avcNpe/w,  bring  up ;  hence,  the  repeating  of  the  order. 


380  SYNTAX. 

ANAPHORA.  CHIASMUS. 

Quid  dicam  de  moribus  facil-  Aeque  iucunda  erit  simpli- 

limis,  de  pietate  in  matrem,  citas  dissentientis  quam  com- 

liberalitate  in  sorores,  boni-  probantis  auctoritas    (Plln., 

tate    in    siios,     iustitia    in  Ep.,  iii.,  4,  9). 

omnes?  (Cic.,  Am.,  3,  ll).  Si  hostium  fuit  ille  sanguls, 

Ita  recta  ingenia  debilitat  summa  militum  pietas  ;  nefa- 

verecundia,  perversa   confir-  rium  seehis,  si  civium  (Cic., 

mat  audacia  (Plin.,  Ep.,  iv.,  7).  PM.,  xiv.,  3,  6). 

a.  When  alter  .  .  .  alter  are  used,  referring  to  two  things 
already  mentioned,  they  are  usually  arranged  chiastically ; 
as:  — 

In  quo  quid  potest  esse  mail,  cum  mors  nee  ad  viv5s  per- 
tineat  nee  ad  mortuos  ?  Alterl  nulll  sunt,  alteros  non 
attmget,  but  in  this  what  evil  can  there  be,  since  death  concerns 
neither  the  living  nor  the  dead  ?  The  one  have  no  existence, 
and  it  will  not  touch  the  others  (Cic.,  Tusc.,  i.,  38,  91). 

NOTE.  In  chiasmus  the  balanced  phrases  consist  usually  of  only  two 
terms  each,  and  the  name  comes  from  the  resemblance  to  the  Greek  letter 
X  (cAz)>  suggested  by  the  criss-cross  arrangement. 

CERTAIN  MINOR  POINTS  OF  ORDER. 

599.  Certain  minor  points  with  regard  to  the  arrange- 
ment of  the  sentence  deserve  notice,  as  follows :  — 

a.  The  more  rhetorical  writers,  especially  Cicero,  were  careful 
to  make  their  sentences  euphonious  and  rhythmically  smooth. 
This  they  accomplished  by  choosing  *  words  which  in  the  posi- 
tions required  by  their  relations  of  emphasis  produced  a  pleasing 
variety  by  their  alternations  of  long  with  short  syllables  and  of 
accented  with  unaccented  parts,  and  also  by  paying  particular 
attention  to  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

Cicero  declares  himself  especially  fond  of  certain  cadenees 
at  the  end  of  a  sentence ;  namely,  _  w  -  (cretic),  as,  postu- 
lant ;  -w«^  (dactyl),  as,  reximus  ;  _www_^  (1st  paeon  with 

*  Not  by  changing  the  order,  as  if  the  Romans  thought  their  sentences 
out  in  words  first,  and  afterwards  settled  the  order. 


MINOR   POINTS   OF   ORDER.  381 

a  trochee  or  spondee),  as,  esse  videatur  ;  and,  above  all, 
-  w  -  v  (double  trochee),  as,  comprobavit.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  rhythm  _  w  v  -  ^  (dactyl  and  spondee,  i.  e.,  the  ending  of  a 
regular  hexameter  verse),  was  rather  Avoided  ;  as,  degere  possit. 
It  should  be  observed,  however,  that  a  false  emphasis  is  never 
allowed  for  the  sake  of  a  more  rhythmical  ending. 

b.  The  emphases  of  the  early  part  of  a  sentence  are  often 
fixed  by  the  logical  sequence  of  the  ideas  in  their  relation  to  the 
previous  sentence,  but  towards  the  end  the  distinctions  of  em- 
phasis are  less  sharp,  and  it   frequently  depends  on  the  mere 
choice  of  the  writer  from  which  of  two  or  three  slightly  differ- 
ent points  of  view  the  closing  ideas  shall  be  presented. 

c.  Not  infrequently  the  verb  occupies  the  last  place  but  one 
in  the  sentence.     The  commonest  cases  are  (1)  when  the  verb 
stands  between  a  noun  and  a  modifying  adjective  or  genitive, 
(2)  when  the  verb  precedes  an  infinitive  which  depends  upon 
it,  (3)  when  the  subject  of  the  verb  is  kept  for  the  last  place. 
Thus  :  — 

(1.)   Ut  ulla  intermlssio  fiat  offici  (Cic.,  Am.,  2,  8). 
(2.)   Quantas  vix  queo  dicere  (Cic.,  Am.,  6,  22). 
(3.)  Ne  te  .  .  .  disserentem  deficiat  oratio  (Cic.,  lie  Pub., 
i.,  23,  37). 

NOTE.  Sometimes  there  is  an  evident  gain  in  emphasis  in  thus  making 
the  verb  a  little  more  prominent  than  the  other  word,  but  sometimes  the 
difference  in  emphasis  is  so  slight  that  the  arrangement  seems  rather  to 
have  been  made  for  euphony.  Thus,  in  the  last  case  above,  the  difference 
in  emphasis  is  easily  appreciable  according  as  deficiat  oratio  or  oratio  defi- 
ciat  is  written  ;  in  the  second  case  it  is  less  easy  to  feel  an  emphasis  on 
queo  ;  in  the  first  case  the  shade  of  emphasis  is  intangible,  but  the  rhetorical 
effect  of  the  separation  of  intermissio  and  offici  is  very  distinct. 

d.  The  difference   between  the   ordinary  accent  of  English 
and  of  Latin  sentences  sometimes  tends  to  make  a  Latin  empha- 
sis seem  unnatural  to  us,  especially  at  the  end  of  a  sentence. 
For  so  far  as  we  mark  emphasis  by  position  at  all,  the  last  place 
in  our  sentences  is  the  most  emphatic. 

NOTE  1.     Such  cases  occur  chiefly  — 

(1.)  In  carefully  balanced  pairs  of  sentences  where  all  the  words  are 


382  SYNTAX. 

forcible,  as  in  the  second  example  of  anaphora  (598)  above.  Thus :  ita 
recta  ingenia  debilitat  verecundia,  perversa  conflrmat  auddcia.  Here  there 
are  three  pairs  of  contrasts,  and  it  is  difficult  to  see  that  one  is  stronger 
than  another,  except  that  an  English  accent  tends  to  make  us  give  the 
contrast  between  verecundia  and  auddcia  a  little  more  force  than  the  others. 
To  the  Roman,  however,  so  far  as  there  was  a  difference  it  was  in  favor 
of  the  contrast  between  recta  ingenia  and  perversa. 

('2.)  In  a  similar  single  sentence,  where  the  last  word  has  a  certain  em- 
phasis, though  the  words  before  it  are  still  more  emphatic ;  as,  ex  tribus 
primis  generibus,  longe  praestat,  med  sententid,  regium  (Cic.,  He  Pub.,  i.,  45, 
69).  The  proper  relative  emphases  here  can  be  expressed  roughly  by  trans- 
lating thus:  ''The  royal  is  in  MY  OPnaoN  BY  FAR  the  best  of  the 
FIRST  THREE  KINDS." 

(3.)  When  the  last  word  is  a  proper  name.  Thus,  the  sentence  tantum 
abest  ut  nostra  miremur,  ut  usque  eo  dijficiles  dc  morosl  slmus,  ut  nobls  non 
satisfaciat  ipse  Demosthenes  (Cic.,  Or.,  29,  104),  means  "so  far  am  I  from 
admiring  my  own  efforts  that  I  am  critical  and  exacting  to  such  a  degree 
that  Demosthenes  HIMSELF  does  not  SATISFY  3LE."  At  first  sight  the 
meaning  might  seem  to  be  "  that  I  am  not  satisfied  with  DEMOSTHENES 
HIMSELF,"  but  the  Latin  order  for  that  would  be  ut  ipse  Demosthenes 
nobls  non  satisfaciat.* 

*  In  thus  giving  a  different  explanation  from  the  usual  one  of  passages 
like  the  two  last  quoted,  I  regret  that  it  would  take  too  much  space  to  set 
forth  here  the  reasons  for  my  opinion.  A  study  of  very  many  instances 
has  convinced  me  that  this  opinion  is  correct.  It  is.  of  course,  inherently 
possible  that  the  last  word  in  the  cases  given  should  be  the  most  emphatic, 
and  tradition  has  made  it  seem  more  natural  to  regard  them  so ;  but  when 
I  put  the  following  arrangements  beside  each  other :  — 

longe  praestat  med  sententid  regium  ; 

regium  med  sententid  longe  praestat ; 

ipse  Demosthenes  nobls  non  satisfacit ; 

nobis  non  satisfacit  ipse  Demosthenes, 
and  find  in  Cicero  near  this  last  order  the  following  :  — 

itaque  se  purgdns  iocdtur  Demosthenes, 

where  nobody  makes  "Demosthenes"  the  emphatic  word,  and,  on  the 
other  hand, 

vt  Aeschinl  ne  Demosthenes  quidem  videdtur  Attice  dlcere, 
and  cum  etiam  Demosthenes  exagitetur  ut putidus  (Or.,  8,  26  and  27), 
I  cannot  believe  that  so  practical  a  people  as  the  Romans  used  the  dif- 
ferent arrangements  only  for  the  sake  of  variety,  nor  can  I  find  any  better 
explanation  than  the  one  suggested. 


VERIFICATION.  383 

NOTE  2.  So  also  an  emphasis  is  sometimes  repeated  for  rhetorical  effect 
where  an  alternation  of  emphasis  would  seem  more  natural  to  us.  Thus  :  — 

Qudlis,  ut  arbitror,  nemo  umquam  erit,  vt  conflrmdre  possum,  nemo 
certe  fuit  (Cic.,  Am.,  3,  lo) ;  nam  plurimum  fide,  plurimuni  veri- 
tate,  plurimuni  intellegentia  praestat  (Plin.,  Ep.,  iii.,  2,  3). 

Here  the  Roman  mind  is  concentrated  for  the  moment  on  the  given 
expressions  as  individual  phrases,  while  we  are  inclined  to  think  rather  of 
their  relation  to  each  other  as  parts  of  a  whole.  Sometimes,  however,  we, 
too,  should  repeat  the  emphasis  as  the  Roman  does.  Thus  :  — 

Qua  re  quod  dandum  est  amicitiae,  large  dabitur  a  me,  ut  tecum  agam,  Servi, 
non  secus  dc  si  meus  esset  frdter,  qul  mihl  est  cdrissimus,  isto  in  loco  ;  quod 
tribuendum  est  officio,  jidei,  religionl,  id  ita  moderdbor  ut  meminerim,  me 
contra  amid  studium  pro  amici  perlculo  dicere,  ...  so  as  to  remember 
that  though  it  is  a  friend  whose  desire  I  oppose,  it  is  also  a  friend  whom 
my  speech  tries  to  shield  from  danger  (Cic.,  Mur.,  4,  10). 


VERSIFICATION  (Versificatio). 

600.  In  poetry,  unlike  prose,  the  words  are  marked  off 
into  regular  divisions  of  time,  called  FEET  (pedes).     A 
combination  of  a  fixed  number  of  feet  constitutes  a  line 
or  VERSE  (versus). 

601.  The  unit  of  measurement  is  the  quantity  or  dura- 
tion of  one  short  syllable  or  one  MORA.     (See  26,  a.\ 

602.  Feet  consist  of  three  morae,  or  of  four  morae,  a 
few  also  of  five  morae,  making  thus  divisions  of  time  like 
the  measures  of  music,  as  follows :  — 

(1.)  Three-time  measure  (|). 

Trochee  -  w        (musically  f  f   ),      as,  arma. 

Iambus  w  _         (     "  £  f   ),       "    erant. 

Tribrach  w  w  „    (     "  f  f  £  ),   "   facer e. 

(2.)  Four-time  (or  two-time)  measure  (|  =  f ). 

Dactyl  -  w  y  (musically  f  |*^  ),     as,  corpora. 

Anapaest  w  w  -  (      "          £/ f   )»     "  domim. 

Spondee  _  _  (      "          f  f   )'         "  fundunt' 

Proceleusmatic  wwvw(      "         ff  f       ),  "    hominibus. 


384 


VERSIFICATION. 


(3.)  Five-time  measure  (§•).* 

Cretic  _  w  -  (musically  \    y  \    )% 

Bacchms  w  _  _  (  "    P  f  f 

1st  Paeon  _ 


>> 

(  f  f  f    ), 


as,  castitas. 
"    C  atones, 
"    temporibus 
"    celeritas. 


( 
4th  Paeon  www-( 

To  these  may  be  added  the  following  :  —  • 

a.  Six-time  measure  (§  =  f  ). 

Greater  Ionic  --  v  v  (musically  f  f  j    9  ),    as,  correximus. 

Lesser  Ionic  w  ^  --     (       "         f_f  f  f   ),   "  properabant. 

Choriambus  -  v  w  -      (       "         f  £  P  f   )»   "    terrificant. 
NOTE.     Several  other  varieties  of  feet  are  named  by  the  ancient  gram- 
marians, but  are  discarded  by  the  usage  of  to-day,  as  unnecessary  in  ex- 
plaining Latin  versification.     They  are  :  — 
Pyrrhic  w  w  • 
Amphibrach  w  -  w  • 
Antibacchius  --  v^  , 
Molossus  ---  > 


Dispondee > 

Ditrochee  -  w  —  w  5 
Diiambus  w  -  w  -  5 

Antispast  w w  > 

2d  Paeon  w  -  w  v  ? 
3d  Paeon  w  w  -  w  ? 

1st  Epitrite  w 5 

2d  Epitrite  -  w j 

3d  Epitrite w  -  , 

4th  Epitrite w , 


as,    deus. 

amdre. 

Romdnus. 
1 '      contendunt. 
"      conflixerunt. 
"      comprobdvit. 
"      amdveranfif^ 
'•      adhaesisse. 
"     potentia. 
"      animdtus. 

awdverunt. 
"  conditores. 
' '  discordids. 
11  adduxistis. 


It  will  be  seen  that  the  four-syllabled  feet  are  merely  compounds  of 
the  two-syllabled. 

DIFFERENT  KINDS  OF  VERSE. 

603.  Verse  is  distinguished  according  to  the  kind  of 
foot  which  forms  its  basis ;  as,  dactylic,  anapaestic,  tro- 
chaic, iambic,  Ionic,  etc. 

*  This  time  is  very  rare  in  music. 


tr 
ICTUS;  THESIS  AND  ARSIS. 

604.  Most  kinds  of  verse  are  named,  according  to  the 
number  of  feet  which  they  contain,  dimeter,  trimeter,  te- 
trameter, pentameter,  hexameter   (i.  e.,  measures  of  two, 
three,  four,  five,  or  six  feet). 

Thus,  a  dactylic  hexameter  is  a  dactylic  line  of  six  feet. 

605.  Trochaic,    iambic,    and    anapaestic    verses    are 
either  — 

(1.)  Reckoned  by  pairs  of  feet  (dipodies),  or  — 
(2.)  Named   by   Latin   adjectives   in  -arius,  used   as 
nouns,  and  denoting  the  number  of  feet  in  the  verse. 

Thus,  an  iambic  line  of  six  feet  is  called  either  an  IAMBIC 
TRIMETER  (line  of  three  measures  or  dipodies)  or  an  IAMBIC 
SENARIUS  (line  of  six  iambic  feet)  ;  a  trochaic  line  of  eight 
feet  is  called  either  a  TROCHAIC  TETRAMETER  or  a  TROCHAIC 

OCTONARIUS. 

a.  A  combination  of  two  verses  is  sometimes  called  a  DISTICH  ;  a  half 
verse,  a  HEMISTICH. 

b.  A  verse  sometimes  lacks  a  syllable  at  the  end,  and  is  then  called 
CATALECTIC  ;  if  it  is  complete  it  is  called  ACATALECTJC  ;  if  it  lacks  a  whole 
foot  it  is  sometimes  called  BRACHYCATAI^ECTIC. 

c.  Sometimes  a  verse  has  an  extra  syllable  or  foot  at  the  end,  and  is 
then  called  HYPERCATALECTIC  or  HYPERMETER. 

d.  The  term  PENTHEMIMEBIS  is  sometimes  used  to  indicate  a  portion  of 
a  verse  consisting  of  two  feet  and  a  half   (measured  always  from  the  be- 
ginning).    Less   common  are   HEPTHEMIMEBIS   (three  feet  and  a  half), 
TBIHEMIMERIS  (one  foot  and  a  half),  and  other  like  terms. 

METRICAL  ACCENT  ;  THESIS  AND  ARSIS. 

606.  One  syllable  in  every  foot  of  a  verse  receives  a 
greater  stress  of  voice  than  the  others.     This  is  called  the 
metrical  accent,  or  ICTUS. 

607.  The  part  of  the  foot  which  receives  the  ictus  is 
called  the  THESIS,  the  rest  of  the  foot  is  called  the  ARSIS.* 


*  THESIS  (from  riOy/Ai,  put)  means  the  downward  movement  of  the  foot 
in  beating  time  or  marching;  ARSIS  (from  atpca,  raise),  the  upward  beat  or 
raising  of  the  foot.  Through  a  misunderstanding  of  the  Greek,  the  mean- 
ing of  the  terms  thesis  and  arsis  has  commonly  been  reversed,  the  accented 
part  of  the  verse  being  called  the  arsis  and  the  unaccented  part  the  thesis. 


386  VERSIFICATION. 

NOTE.     The  alternation  of  thesis  and  arsis  produces  what  is  called  the 
KHYTHM  of  the  verse. 

CAESURA  AND  DIAERESIS. 

608.  (1.)  The  ending  of  a  word  within  a  foot  is  called 
CAESURA  (i.  e.,  a  cutting)  ;  the  ending  of  a  word  coin- 
ciding with  the  end  of  a  foot  is  called  DIAERESIS. 

(2  )  In  the  hexameter  and  several  other  kinds  of  verse 
some  one  caesura  generally  marks  a  pause  in  the  sense, 
and  is  called  the  PRINCIPAL  caesura,  or  the  caesura  of  the 
verse. 

a.  In  the  hexameter  the  principal  caesura  occurs  most  com- 
monly in  the  third  foot ;  sometimes  in  the  fourth  foot.     In  the 
latter  case  there  is  usually  also  a  slight  caesural  break   in  the 
second  foot.     A  diaeresis  at  the  end  of  the  fourth  foot  is  called 
the  BUCOLIC  diaeresis,  from  its  frequent  occurrence  in  Greek 
pastoral  poetry. 

b.  When  a  caesura  occurs  after  the  thesis  of  a  foot,  it  is  called 
a  MASCULINE  caesura ;  in  the  middle  of  the  arsis  it  is  called  a 
FEMIXIXE  caesura.     A  masculine   caesura  in  the  third  foot  is 
sometimes  called  a  PEXTHEMIMERIS,  or  PEXTHEMIMERAL  cae- 
sura. 

For  examples  see  the  dactylic  hexameter  (614). 

FIGURES  OF  VERSIFICATION. 

609.  The  following  peculiarities  in  the  treatment  of 
words  in  verse  are  called  FIGURES  of  versification  :  — 

(1.)  A  vowel,  or  m  preceded  by  a  vowel,  is  regularly  elided 
before  a  word  beginning  with  a  vowel  or  h.  This  elision 
(striking  out)  consists  in  partially  suppressing  the  vowel  or  syl- 
lable, not  in  wholly  omitting  it.  It  is  also  called  SYNALOEPHA 
(smearing  together).  Thus  :  — 

Quidve  moror?  s(l)  omnes  un(o)  ordin(e)   habetis  Achi- 
vos.  (Verg.,  Ae.,  ii.,  102.) 

Cf.  th'  for  the,  in  English. 
a.  The  monosyllables  do,  dem,  spe,  spem,  sim,  sto,  stem,  qui  (when  plu- 


FIGURES   OF    VERSIFICATION.  387 

ral),  with   the   interjections  o,  Aeu,  a,  pro,  vae,  vdh,  are   not  subject  to 
elision,  though  6  is  sometimes  made  short. 

6.  Before  a  pause,  a  vowel  which  would  otherwise  be  elided  is  sometimes 
retained,  especially  in  comedy.  The  succession  of  vowel  sounds*  thus 
caused  is  called  HIATUS  (gaping) ;  as :  — 

Ter  sunt  conati  imponere  Pelio  Ossani.         (Verg.,  Gr.,  i.,  281.) 

NOTE.  When  a  long  vowel  or  diphthong  ending  a  Greek  word  thus 
remains  unelided  in  the  arsis,  it  is  usually  made  short  (systole),  as  the  O  of 
Pelio  in  the  example. 

c.  The  elision  of  a  syllable  in  m  is  sometimes  called  ECTHLIPSIS  (squeez- 
ing out). 

d.  In  the  early  poets  final  s  and  its  preceding  vowel  were  sometimes 
elided  before  a  vowel,  and  a  vowel  before  final  S  was  not  always  lengthened 
when  the  next  word  began  with  a  consonant.     (Cf .  18,  d.) 

(2.)  Sometimes  the  vowels  i  and  e  are  made  partial  con- 
sonants, thus  making  one  syllable  of  two.  This  is  called  SYNAE- 
RESIS.  Thus  :  — 

Aurea  percussum  virga  versumque  venems. 

(Verg.,  Ae.,  vii.,  190.) 

(3.)  On  the  other  hand,  the  resolution  of  one  syllable  into 
two  is  called  DIAERESIS  or  DIALYSIS  ;  as,  siZ-u-a  for  siZ-va.  This 
is  chiefly  confined  to  a  few  syllables  consisting  of  V  or  gu,  QU, 
su,  and  a  following  vowel,  and  is  in  most  cases  really  a  survival 
of  an  earlier  form  of  the  given  word. 

(4.)  A  short  syllable  is  occasionally  lengthened  (diastole). 
This  occurs  chiefly  in  the  thesis  before  a  caesura. 

(5.)  A  vowel  at  the  end  of  a  verse  is  occasionally  elided  be- 
fore a  vowel  at  the  beginning  of  the  next  verse.  This  is  called 
SYNAPHEIA.  Thus  :  — 

Omnia  Mercuric  similis,  vocemque  colorem  qu(e) 

Et  crlnes  flavos,  etc.  (Verg.,  Ae.,  iv.,  558,  559.) 

610.  The  last  syllable  of  any  verse  except  anapaestic 
(see  630)  may  be  either  long  or  short  indifferently. 

611.  The  metrical  reading  of  verse  is  called  SCANNING. 
a.  Care  should  be  taken  in  scanning  Latin  verse  not  only  to 

*  The  case  of  in  preceded  by  a  vowel  is  hardly  an  exception,  because  the 
m  was  so  feebly  pronounced  as  merely  to  nasalize  the  vowel.  (Cf.  18,  d.) 


388  VERSIFICATION. 

mark  the  feet  accurately  in  regard  to  quantity  and  ictus,  but  also 
to  keep  the  words  distinct,  observing  the  pauses  as  in  prose. 
When  the  word-accent  is  at  variance  with  the  ictus,  the  latter 
is  to  be  made  the  more  prominent. 

612.  A  fixed  number  of  verses  occurring  in  a  regularly 
repeated  order,  whether  the  verses  be  of  the  same  kind  or 
of  different  kinds,  is  called  a  STROPHE  or  STANZA,  and  is 
often  named  for  some  poet ;    as,  the  Alcaic  strophe  or 
Horatian  stanza,  the  Sapphic  strophe. 

613.  A  long  syllable  is  properly  just  twice  the  length  of 
a  short  syllable,  and  all  the  feet  of  a  verse  are  of  exactly 
equal  length. ;  but :  — 

a.  A  long  syllable  is  sometimes  lengthened  so  as  to  be  equiva- 
lent to  three  or  even  to  four  short  ones,  and  is  then  denoted  by 
the  signs  L  and  U  respectively. 

b.  A  rest  of  the  length  of  one  or  of  two  short  syllables  some- 
times occurs  at  the  end  of  a  foot.     These  rests  are  denoted  by 
the  signs  A  and  A  respectively. 

THE  DIFFERENT  METRES. 
Dactylic  Metres. 

614.  (1.)    The  DACTYLIC    HEXAMETER  *  Consists   of  six 

dactyls,  of  which  the  last  is  incomplete. 

(2.)  For  any  of  the  first  four  feet  spondees  may  be 
substituted.  A  spondee  rarely  occurs  as  the  fifth  foot 
also,  and  the  verse  is  then  called  a  spondaic  verse. 

NOTE.  The  principal  caesura  (marked  thus  ||)  is  most  commonly  after 
the  thesis  of  the  third  foot  (penthemimeris)  ;  often,  however,  after  the 
thesis  of  the  fourth  foot,  and  then  there  is  usually  a  lesser  caesura  in  the 
second  foot.  In  many  lines,  however,  the  principal  caesura  is  in  the  arsis 
of  the  third  foot  (feminine  caesura).  A  bucolic  diaeresis  frequently  occurs 
in  pastoral  poetry  like  Virgil's  Eclogues  and  Georgics. 

*  Often  called  the  Heroic  Verse, 


DACTYLIC   METRES.  389 

The  scheme  of  the  metre  is  therefore  as  follows :  — 

—  vJ^/         —  \J\J         —    I)    VW         —  VS*»         —   W   ^         —  w 

or  musically 

0  *  ?    *  909.  •  *    »  f  '  \?  f  ? \?  ^  „  i 

1  U    I  I     U    I  I    I  U    I  I     U    I  I     LJ    I  I     W  1  I 
Thus :  — 

At  tuba  |  terribi|lem  soni|tum  ||  procul  |  aere  ca|noro. 

(Verg.,  Ae.,  ix.,  503.) 
Inton|si  cri|nes  ||  lonjga  cer|vice  flu|ebant. 

(TibulL,  iii.,  4,  27.) 
Ludere  |  quae  veljlem  ||  calajmo  perjmisit  ajgresti. 

(Verg.,  Ec.9  i.,  10.) 
Non  medi|a  de  |  gente  ||  Phry|gum  exe|disse  ne|fandls. 

(Verg.,  Ae.,  v.,  785.) 
Cf .  in  English  :  — 
Meanwhile,  apart,  at  the  head  of  the  hall,  the  priest  and  the 

herdsman 

Sat,  conversing  together  of  past  and  present  and  future  ; 
While  Evangeline  stood  like  one  entranced,  for  within  her 
Olden  memories  rose,  and  loud  in  the  midst  of  the  music 
Heard  she  the  sound  of  the  sea,  and  an  irrepressible  sadness 
Came  o'er  her  heart,  and  unseen  she  stole  forth  into  the  gar- 
den. (Longfellow's  Evangeline.) 

NOTE.     A  light  and  rapid  movement  is  produced  by  the  frequent  recur- 
rence of  dactyls  ;  a  slow  and  heavy  one  by  that  of  spondees ;  as :  — 

Quadrupe  |  dante  j  pu|trem  soni|tu  ||  quatit  |  ungnla  |  campum. 

(Verg.,  Ae.,  viii.,  596.) 

111!  injter  se|se  ||  malgna  vl  |  bracchia  |  tollunt. 

(Verg.,  Ae.,  viii.,  452.) 

.  615.  The  ELEGIAC  stanza  consists  of  a  dactylic  hexa- 
meter alternating  with  a  verse  consisting  of  two  half 
hexameters  each  of  which  has  its  last  foot  incomplete 
(i.  e.,  one  long  syllable). 

a.  Of  the  half  verses  only  the  first  admits  a  spondee  instead 

*  The  last  foot  is  strictly  -*  v  A. 


390  VERSIFICATION. 

of  a  dactyl,  and  both  must  end  with  the  end  of  a  word.     The 
scheme  is  therefore  as  follows  :  — 

-£  vw       -£  sJv       -^  ||  vv       -^  v^/       -^  w  w       -*  w 
—  vw      —  vJw      —  A  ||       — ww      — ww      — A 

and  musically  the  half  verses  are  represented  thus  :  — 

rcrirc;ir*ircrirc;ir*i 

Thus:  — 

Flebilis  |  indi|gnos  ||  Ele|geia  |  solve  cajpillos 
Ah  nimis  |  ex  ve|ro  ||  nunc  tibi  |  nomen  e|rit. 

(Ov.,  Am.,  iii.,  9,  3.) 
Cf.  in  English  :  — 

Lo  !  in  a  land  that  is  new,  a  new-born  Salamis  waits  you. 
Hearts  that  often  ere  now  perils  have  brav'd  at  my  side 
Graver  by  far,  —  I  pledge  you.     To-night  be  merry.     To-mor- 
row 
Speed  once  more  our  barks  over  the  measureless  sea. 

(S.  H.  Hodgson  :  Trans,  of  Nor.,  Od.,  i.,  7.) 
Other    dactylic    verses   are   rare.     The   following    occur   in 
strophes  :  — 

616.  The  ALCMANIAN  strophe  consists  of  a  dactylic 
hexameter  alternating  with  a  dactylic  tetrameter.     The 
scheme  is :  — 

—  vw      —  vTw      —  ||  v^/      —  vJw      —  w  v^      —  w 
—  \Jw      —  vw      —\Jv      — w 

Thus:  — 

Ambigu|am  tel|lure  no|va  ||  Sala|mma  fulturam. 

O  for|tes  pe|ioraque  |  pass! 
Mecum  |  saepe  vi  ri,  ||  nunc  |  vino  |  pellite  [  curas ; 

Cras  in] gens  ite|rabimus  !  aequor. 
(Hor.,  Od.,  i.,  7  ;  the  original  of  the  selection  under  615.) 

617.  The  FIRST  ARCHILOCHIAN  STROPHE  consists  of 
a  dactylic  hexameter  alternating  with  a  dactylic  penthe- 
mimeris  (two  feet  and  a  half).     The  scheme  is :  — 


TROCHAIC   AND   IAMBIC   METRES.  391 

Thus:  — 

Frigora  |  mite|scunt  ||  Zephy|ris,  ver  |  proterit  |  aetas 

Interi|tura,  si|mul 
Pomifer    autum|nus  ||  frujges  ef|fuderit,    et  mox 

Bruma  re|currit  in|ers.  (Hor.,  Od.,  iv.,  7.) 

Trochaic  and  Iambic  Metres. 

618.  The  longer  trochaic  and  iambic  measures  belong 
chiefly  to  dramatic  poetry.     For  their  understanding  the 
following  preliminary  points  are  necessary  :  — 

(1.)  When  a  spondee  is  substituted  for  a  trochee  or  an  iam- 
bus, it  loses  a  portion  of  its  full  time,  and  is  called  an  IRRA- 
TIONAL SPONDEE.*  This  is  represented  by  the  sign  _  >  (or  mu- 
sically |  / ' )  when  it  stands  for  a  trochee,  and  by  the  sign  >  _ 
when  it  stands  for  an  iambus. 

(2.)  When  a  long  syllable  in  a  foot  is  exchanged  for  two 
short  syllables,  the  foot  is  said  to  be  resolved,  and  the  resulting 
foot  is  called  a  resolution  of  the  other  foot.  Thus,  a  tribrach 
(w  w  w)  is  the  resolution  of  a  trochee  or  an  iambus.  A  spon- 
dee ( — )  may  be  resolved  into  a  dactyl  (_  w  v^)  or  an  anapaest 
(v  ^  -)»  an(l  these  last  into  a  proceleusmatic  '(v/  w  v). 

(3.)  All  of  the  above  feet  may,  therefore,  occur  in  trochaic 
and  iambic  measures.  When  they  are  used  in  trochaic  verse 
they  have  the  ictus  on  their  first  syllable  ;  when  used  in  iambic 
verse,  the  spondee,  dactyl,  and  tribrach  have  the  ictus  on  the 
second  syllable,  the  anapaest  and  the  (rare)  proceleusmatic  on 
the  third. 

(4.)  A  verse  may  have  an  introductory  syllable  or  two,  like 
the  introductory  notes  before  the  first  full  bar  in  music.  These 
introductory  syllables  are  called  ANACRUSIS. 

Trochaic  Metres. 

619.  The  most  common  trochaic  measures  are  the  SEP- 
TENARIUS  (tetrameter   catalectic),   and  the  OCTONARIUS 
(tetrameter  acatalectic). 

*  Sometimes  also  an  irrational  trochee,  or  irrational  iambus,  respectively. 


392  VERSIFICATION. 

a.  In  each  of  these,  as  used  by  the  early  dramatic  poets, 
any  complete  foot  may  be  resolved  into  a  tribrach,  and  for  any 
complete  foot  but  the  last  the  spondee  and  its  resolutions  may 
be  substituted.*     These  irregularities  are,  however,  most  freely 
used  in  the  first  and  fifth  feet.    In  the  late  drama  the  substitu- 
tions are  confined  to  the  second  foot  of  each  dipody.     An  ana- 
paest is  not  used  immediately  after  a  dactyl. 

b.  The  commonest  pause  is  a  diaeresis  at  the  end  of  the  fourth 
foot,  and  in  that  case  the  fourth   foot  must  not  be  a  dactyl. 
Otherwise  a  break  almost  invariably  occurs  at  the  end  of  the 
fifth  foot,  generally  with  a  lesser  break  in  the  fourth  or  after 
the  third. 

NOTE.     The  ictus  on  the  second  foot  of  each  dipody  is  less  strong  than 
that  on  the  first  foot,  and  is  left  unmarked  in  the  scheme  of  the  metres. 

620.    The   possibilities    of    the    septenarius    may   be 
represented  by  the  following  scheme :  — 


f 
vv/ 


or  musically  — 


Thus:  — 

Nuptijas  dojmi^ad  pa|rari  ||  missast  |  ancil|la^ili|co. 

(Ter.T  An.,  514.) 

I  sa]ne  Ceg5  te2ex|erce|bo~hodie,~ut  ||  dlgnus  |  es,  sili]cerni|um, 
Aeschi|nus  odi|ose  j  cessat;  ||  prandijum  cor|rampi|tur; 
Ctesi]pho~autem~in  a  |  more  |  totus:  ||ego  iam  |  prospici|am  mi|hi. 

(Ter.,  Ad.,  lines  587-589.) 
Cf  .  in  English  :  — 
Then  the  dreary  shadows  scattered,  like  a  cloud  in  morning's 

breeze, 

And  a  low  deep  voice  within  me  seemed  whispering  words  like 
these.  (Whittier's  Cassandra  Southwick.) 

*  But  the  proceleusmatic  is  very  rare  in  Plautus  and  not  found  in  Ter- 
ence. 


TROCHAIC   AND   IAMBIC  METRES, 


393 


621.  The  possibilities  of  the  octonarius  may  be  repre- 
sented by  the  following  scheme  :  — 


2 

V  V 


> 

V  V 


or  musically  — 

Thus :  — 

Cense  |  o.     Sed  |  heus  tu.  |  Quid  vis  ?  ||  Censen  |  posse 

mare.  (Ter.,  Enn.,  217.) 

Obse|cro  popu| lares,  |  ferte  ||  misero2at|que2inno|centPau]xilium : 
Subve|nite2ino|pi  :~Oti|ose  ;  ||  nun ci jam  ili|co~hic  conjsiste, 
Quid  rejspectas?  |  nil  pe|riclist:  ||  numquam,     dum^ego^ade-l 
ro^hic  te|tanget.  (Ter.,  Ad.,  lines  155-157.) 

Cf.  in  English  :  — 

Beams  of  noon,  like  burning  lances,  through  the  tree  tops  flash 
and  glisten, 

As  she  stands  before  her  lover,  with  raised  face  to  look  and  lis- 
ten. (Whittier's  Slaves  of  Martinique.) 

622.  A  TROCHAIC  DIMETER  (catalectic)  (3  1-2  feet) 
occurs   in   the   later  tragedy   (used   strophically).      The 
second  foot  may  be  a  spondee  or  dactyl.     Thus :  — 

Lenis  |  ac  modi  |  ce   flu  |  ens 

Aura    nee  ver|gens  la|tus.       (Sen.,  Oed.,  line  887.) 

NOTE.  This  measure  also  enters  into  the  formation  of  the  HIPPONAC- 
TEAN  strophe.  (See  650.)  Other  trochaic  verses  are  occasionally  found, 
chiefly  as  portions  only  of  lines. 

Iambic  Metres. 

623.  The   IAMBIC  TRIMETER  (senarius)  is  the  most 
common  of  all  dramatic  measures,  but  the  SEPTENARIUS 


394  VERSIFICATION. 

(tetrameter  catalectic)  and  OCTONARIUS   (tetrameter  aca- 
talectic)  are  also  frequently  used. 

a.  Speaking  generally,  the  same  substitutions  and  resolutions 
occur  as  with  the  trochaic  measures,  in  any  foot  except  the  last 
among  the  comic  writers,  confined  mostly  to  the  first  foot  of 
each  dipody  in  other  kinds  of  poetry.  The  proceleusmatic  oc- 
curs chiefly  in  the  first  foot,  and  then  the  third  syllable  (ictus 
syllable)  must  begin  a  word,  and  the  ictus  and  word  accent 
must  coincide.  An  anapaest  immediately  after  a  dactyl  is 
avoided. 

624.  The  SENARITJS  consists  of  six  iambic  feet.  The 
regular  caesura  is  after  the  first  syllable  of  the  third  foot 
(penihemimeraT).  Otherwise,  after  the  arsis  of  the  fourth 
foot  there  is  almost  always  a  caesura,  often  with  a  diaere- 
sis after  the  second  foot. 

The  scheme  is  as  follows  :  — 


i/       f 
> 

V  V 

V  V 


Thus  :  — 

Phase]lus  iljle  |j  quern  |  vide]tis  ho|spites.     (Catull.,  4,  1.) 

Storax.|Non  redi|it  ||  hac  |  nocte^a  |  cena^Aejschinus 
Neque  ser|volo|rum  ||  quis|quam.  qui2ad|vorsum^i|erant. 
Profeclto^hic  ve|re  di|cunt :  ||  si^ab|sis  usfpiam. 

(Ter.,  Ad.,  lines  26-28.) 
Cf .  in  English  :  — 

0  light  immortal,  winds  on  wings  of  swiftness  borne, 
O  river  sources,  and  the  countless  flashing  smile 
Of  ocean's  wavelets,  universal  mother  earth. 

(L.  Dyer,  Trans,  of  Aesch.,  Prom.,  88  ff.) 

625.  The  SEPTENARITJS  consists  of  seven  and  a  half 
iambic  feet.  The  regular  break  is  after  the  fourth  foot, 
and  this  foot  must  then  be  a  real  iambus.  If  this  break 


IAMBIC    METRES. 


395 


does   not  occur,  there  is  always  a  break  after  the  arsis 
of  the  fifth  foot. 

The  scheme  is  as  follows  :  — 


Thus :  — 

Salu|tant,  ad  |  cenam  |  vocant,  ||  adven|tum  gra|tu]an|tur. 

(Ter.,  Eun.,  259.) 

Sed  quid  hoc  |  est  ?    vide  |  on  ego  |  Getam  ||  currenltem^huc  ad- 

veni|re  ? 
Is  est  i|psus,  ei,  |  timeo  |  miser,  ||  quam  hfc^mihi  |  mine  nun|tiet 

rem.  (Ter.,  Phorm.,  lines  177,  178.) 

Cf.  in  English*  — 

In  Scarlet  towne,  where  I  was  borne, 

There  was  a  faire  maid  dwellin, 
Made  every  youth  crye  "  Wel-awaye !  " 

Her  name  was  Barbara  Allen.     (Percy's  JReliques.) 

626.  The  OCTONARIUS  consists  of  eight  iambic  feet. 
When  the  break  after  the  fourth  foot  occurs  without  eli- 
sion, this  foot  must  be  a  real  iambus,  as  in  the  septenarius. 

The  scheme  is  as  follows :  — 


Thus  :  — 

Domum  |  modo^i]bo,2ut    ad|pare|tur  ||  dl|cam,2atque2huc  |  re- 
nun|tio.  (Ter.,  An.,  594.) 

Abs    qm|vis    homijne,    quomst  |   opus,  ||   beneficijum^accipelre 

gau|deas ; 

Verum^enim   |   ve ro^id  |  demum  |  iuvat,    ||    si    quem^ae) quomst 
^is  bene|facit.  (Ter.,  Ad.,  lines  254,  255.) 


*  Written  as  two  lines. 


396  VERSIFICATION. 

Cf  .  in  English  :  *  — 

On  Linden,  when  the  sun  was  low, 

All  bloodless  lay  the  untrodden  snow  ; 

And  dark  as  winter  was  the  flow 

Of  Iser,  rolling  rapidly.  (Campbell.) 

NOTE.     Iambic  measures  are  sometimes  regarded  as  trochaic  measures 
with  anacrusis,  and  may  then  be  expressed  musically  as  follows  :  — 

Senarius  :  — 

V  :         —  \s       —  w     II     —  w       —  v  —  w       —  A 


Septenarius  :  — 


Octonarius  :  — 

w!        -^      -w  -*v      -lw  •*«      -v  ^w      -A 


627.  The  pure  IAMBIC  TRIMETER  (i.  e.,  without  any 
resolutions  or  substitutions)    is  first  found  in  Catullus. 
Thus  :  — 

Phase|lus  il|le,  ||  quern  |  vide|tis,  ho  |  spites 

Ait  |  fuis(se  ||  na  vium  |  celer|rimus.  (Catull.,  4.) 

628.  The  CHOLIAMBIC  t  measure  is  an  iambic  trimeter 
with  a  trochee  for  the  last  foot.     Thus  :  — 

v~      v—      v||—      w—      w—      ^v 

as:  — 

Miser  |  Catul|le  |]  de|sinas  |  inep|tire 

Et  quod  |  vides  |  peris  |se  ||  per|ditum  |  ducas.     (Catull.,  8.) 

a.    The    choliambic    may   also    be    represented    metrically 
thus  :  — 


*  Written  as  two  lines. 

t  I.  e.,  lame  iambic.     It  is  also  called  SCAZON  (hobbling). 


ANAPAESTIC,    BACCHIAC,   AND   CRETIC   METRES.     397 

629.  The  IAMBIC  DIMETER  (catalectic)  is  found  in  the 
later  tragedies.     It  is  also  called  the  Anacreontic,  and  is 
used  strophically.     Thus :  — 

Ut  ti|gris  or|ba  gna|tis.     (Sen.,  Med.,  863.) 

NOTE.  Other  iambic  measures  occasionally  occur,  chiefly  as  parts  of 
strophes  or  as  single  lines,  especially  the  dimeter  acatalectic  (quaternarius) 
and  trimeter  cataleetic.  See  650  ff. 

Anapaestic,  Bacchiac,  and   Cretic  Metres. 
Anapaestic,  bacchiac,  and  cretic  measures  are  mostly  confined 
to  the  early  comedy  writers  (especially  Plautus)  and  the  later 
tragic  poets.     The  common  forms  are  as  follows :  — 

Anapaestic  Metres. 

630.  In  anapaestic  verse  a  spondee,  a  dactyl,  or  a  pro- 
celeusmatic  may  be  substituted  for  an  anapaest.     There  is 
a  regular  break  after  the  fourth  foot  in  the  septenarius 
and  octonarius. 

(1.)  Septenarius. 
Quid  ais  ?  |  viro  me  |  malo  male  |  nuptam.  ||   Satin  au|dis  quae^il-J 

lie  loqui|tur  ? 

Satis.     Si  |  sapiam,~hinc  |  intro~abe|am,~ubi   mihi  ||  bene    sit.| 
Mane:  male~e|rit  poti|us.       (Plaut.,  Menaech.,  602,  603.) 

Cf .  in  English  :  *  — 

Not  a  drum  was  heard,  not  a  funeral  note, 
As  his  corse  to  the  rampart  we  hurried  ; 
Not  a  soldier  discharged  his  farewell  shot 
O'er  the  grave  where  our  hero  we  buried. 

(Wolfe's  Burial  of  Sir  John  Moore.) 
(2.)  Octonarius. 
Mille     mo|dis     amor   |  ignojrandust,    ||    procul     abhi|bendust  | 

atque^ap  |  standust ; 

Nam  qui^in  a|morem  |  praecipi|tavit,  ||  peius  pe  rit  quasi  |  saxo  | 
saliat.  (Plaut.,  Trin.,  lines  264,  265.) 

*  Written  in  two  lines. 


398  VERSIFICATION. 

Cf .  in  English  :  *  — 

The  mistletoe  hung  in  the  castle  hall, 
And  the  holly  branch  shone  on  the  old  oak  wall ; 
The  baron's  retainers  were  blithe  and  gay, 
Keeping  their  Christmas  holiday. 

(See  Wadham's  Versification,  p.  65.) 
(3.)  Dimeter  acatalectic  (quaternarius). 

Haec  ego  |  quom  cum~ani|mo  meo  |  reputo 
Ubi  qui~e|get,  quam  |  preti  sit  |  parvi 
Apage,~amor,  |  te,  non  |  places  :  nil  |  te~utor. 

(Plaut.,  Trin.,  lines  256-258.) 
Cf .  in  English  :  *  — 

'T  is  the  last  rose  of  summer 

Left  blooming  alone  ; 
All  her  lovely  companions 

Are  faded  and  gone.  (T.  Moore.) 

(4.)  Dimeter  catalectic  (paroemiac). 

Quam^hic  rem  |  gerat  ani]mum~advor|tam. 

(Plaut,  Trin.,  line  843.) 

NOTE.  Other  varieties  also  occur,  as  the  trimeter  catalectic  and  the 
manometer.  This  last,  like  the  paroemiac,  is  used  mostly  as  the  last  line  of 
a  series  of  longer  anapaestic  verses. 

Bacchiac  and  Cretic  Metres. 

631.  i.  In  bacchiac  and  cretic  measures  either  (but  not 
both)  of  the  long  syllables  may  be  resolved,  or  a  molossus 
( )  may  be  substituted. 

ii.  The  TETRAMETER  is  the  most  usual  variety  in  each 
of  these  measures.  A  break  is  most  common  after  the 
second  foot.  Thus :  — 

(1.)  Bacchiac  tetrameter.     [Ictus  w  JL  _] 

Adcura|te~agatur,  ||  docte~et  di|ligenter, 
TantaTmcepjta  res  est :  ||  haud  somni|culose~hoc 

*  Written  in  two  lines. 


CHORIAMBIC   AND   IONIC   METRES.  399 

Agendumst.  ||  Ero~ut  me  |  voles  es|se.     Spero, 
Nam  tu  nunc  |  vides  pro  |  tuo  ca|ro  capite 
Carum^offer|re  me  meum    caput  vi|litati. 

(Plaut.,  Copt.,  lines  226-230.) 
(2.)  Cretic  tetrameter.     [Ictus  J-  w  _] 

Copiast,  |  atque^ea  ||  facitis  nos  |  conpotes, 
Secede^huc  |  nunciam,  ||  si  vide|tur,  procul, 
Ne~arbitri  |  dicta  no||stra~arbitra|ri  queant 
Neu  perma|net  palanPhaec  ||  nostra  fal|lacia. 

(Plaut,  Capt.,  lines  217-220.) 

a.  The  last  foot  is  often  incomplete  (tetrameter  catalectw)  ; 
as:  — 

Meo  modo^et  |  moribus    vivito~an|tiquis. 

(Plaut.,  Trin.,  line  295.) 

NOTE.  In  comedy  the  iambic  senarius  is  used  for  the  scenes  of  spoken 
dialogue  ;  the  iambic  septenarius  and  octonarius  and  the  trochaic  septe- 
narius  are  used  in  more  or  less  long  passages,  which  were  delivered  as 
recitative  with  musical  accompaniment.  The  trochaic  octonarius,  the 
anapaestic,  bacchiac,  cretic,  and  the  shorter  trochaic  and  iambic  measures 
are  used  for  strophic  groups  of  lines  (called  CANTICA)  which  were  regularly 
sung  to  music. 

Choriambic  and  Ionic  Metres. 

632.  The   CHORIAMBIC  TETRAMETER  is  occasionally 
found.      [Ictus  J.  w  ^  -£]     Thus  :  — 

Omne  nemus  |  cum  fluvils  |  omne  canat  |  profundum. 

(Claud.,  Nupt.  Hon.,  ii.,  4.) 

NOTE.  Many  of  the  logaoedic  measures  (see  643)  are  sometimes  scanned 
as  choriambic. 

633.  The  LESSER  IONIC  verse  is  found  in  one  ode  of 
Horace.      [Ictus  ^  ^JL  _]     A  strophe  consists  of  ten  feet. 
Thus :  — 

Miserarum^est  |  nequejimori  |  dare  ludum  |  neque  dulci 

Mala  vmo^aut  |  lavere^aut  ex|animari 

Metuentes  |  patruae  ver|bera  linguae.    (Hor.,  Od.,  iii.,  12.) 


400  VERSIFICATION. 

634.  The  GREATER  IONIC  (Sotadean)  was  used  by  En- 
mus,  Martial,  and  others.     [Ictus  J.  _  w  w] 

a.  The  early  poets  use  double  trochees  and  other  equivalent 
feet  instead  of  the  Ionic,  and  resolve  a  long  syllable  of  the 
Ionic  freely,  but  Martial  and  the  later  poets  confine  themselves 
chiefly  to  one  resolution  in  a  verse,  and  use  only  the  double 
trochee  as  a  substitution.  Thus  :  — 

Nain  quam  varia  J  sint  genera  po|ematorum,  |  Balbi, 
Quamque  longe  |  distincta~ali|a2ab  aliis  sis,  \  nosce. 

(Ace.,  Didasc.) 

Has,  cum  gemilna  compede,    dedicat  ca|tenas, 
Saturne,  tijbi  Zoilus,    anulos  pri|ores.  (Martial.) 

PECULIARITIES  OF  EARLY  VERSIFICATION. 

Besides  the  feeble  force  of  s  in  early  prosody  (see  609,  "l,d)9 
the  following  points  should  be  noted  :  — 

635.  The  originally  long  quantity  of  certain  final  sylla- 
bles,  which    afterwards    became    short,   was    sometimes 
retained.     So  — 

(1.)  -es  (gen.  -itis)  ;  as,  super stes. 
(2.)  -or  (gen.  -oris)  ;  as,  soror. 

(3.)  Verb  endings  in  -r,  -s,  -t ;  as,  regredwr,  augeat,  fueriSj 
monult. 

a.  These  irregularities  occur  chiefly  in  Plautus. 

NOTE.  The  final  a  of  the  feminine  singular  in  nouns  and  adjectives  of 
the  first  declension  has  also  often  been  measured  long  in  early  Latin  verse ; 
as,  epistuld,  bond ;  but  many  of  the  best  authorities  now  deny  this  quantity. 

636.  Words  of   two  syllables,  with  the  first  syllable 
short,  often  shorten  a  long  final  vowel;  as,  nov&',  levl; 
iube* 

a.  This  shortening  is  particularly  common  before  a  syllable 
which  has  the  verse  accent ;  as,  dari  mi. 

*  This  is  due  to  the  influence  of  the  word-accent.  It  is  much  easier 
after  a  short  accented  syllable  to  pronounce  a  final  vowel  short  than  long. 


PECULIARITIES   OF  EARLY   VERSIFICATION.         401 

637.  Other  long  syllables  are  not  infrequently  short- 
ened when  they  stand  after  a  short  syllable  *  and  before  a 
syllable  which  has  the  verse  accent ;  as,  wegat  PJiafnium  ; 
vel  occidito  ;  seueotu'tem. 

638.  Also  after  a  short  monosyllable  which  has  the 
verse  accent,  a  syllable  may  be  shortened.     Thus :  sed  Id 
quod  ;  quid  Istuc  ;  dd  Ipsam. 

a.  So,  too,  the  second  syllable  of  a  word  of  several  syllables, 
if  the  first  is  short  and  has  the  verse  accent ;  as,  vo\xmtate. 

639.  Monosyllables  ending  in  a  long  vowel  (or  -m) 
are  often  employed  before  a  vowel  as  the  thesis  of  a  foot, 
being  shortened  instead  of  elided.     Thus  :  qul  aget ;  n§ 
agas  ;  quam  ego. 

640.  Vowels  which  ordinarily  make  a  syllable  of  their 
own  are  often  run  together  with  a  following  vowel  (even 
though  h  intervene),  thus  making  one  syllable  of  two. 

This  is  called  STNIZESIS  or  SYNAERESIS.  Thus:  antehac, 
dibam  (aibas^  etc.,  always),  meus,  tuus,  fuisse.  (Cf. 
609,  2.) 

641.  Doubled  consonants  were   not   regularly  written 
(or  sounded)  in  the  time  of  Plautus,  and  thus  words  like 
ttle,jimmo,  quippe,  are  used  by  him  with  the  first  syllable 
short. 

a.  Ennius  first  wrote  doubled  consonants  regularly  ;  and  his 
contemporary  Terence  rarely  neglects  their  effect  upon  the  quan- 
tity of  a  syllable ;  when  he  does  so,  it  is  almost  always  at  the 
beginning  of  an  iambic  verse. 

b.  Before  the   combination,  mute   and   liquid,  short  vowels 
always  retain   their  natural   (short)    quantity  in   Plautus  and 
Terence ;  as,  s&cri,  inp&tro. 

*  Whether  in  the  same  word  or  not.     In  words  of  more  than  two  sylla- 
bles, however,  only  the  first  two  syllables  seem  to  suffer  this  shortening. 


402  VERSIFICATION. 

Saturnian  Verse. 

NOTE.  The  earliest  Latin  verse  was  not,  like  the  verses 
already  treated,  an  imitation  of  the  Greek,  but  a  product  of 
Italian  soil.  It  is  called  SATURXIAX  verse.  Scholars  are  not 
agreed  as  to  certain  important  points  in  its  character,  but  it  is 
generally  admitted  that  the  accent  (ictus)  has  much  more  promi- 
nence as  compared  with  quantity  than  in  the  Greek  metres. 

642.  SATURNIAN  verse  consists  of  two  half  verses  with 
a  break  between  them,  on  the  following  scheme  (iambic 
dimeter  catalectic  +  trochaic  tripody)  :  — 

v  •*      v-Z-      w-£      *  M  w      ^  v      J-* 
Thus:  — 

Dabunt  |  malum  |  Meteljli  ||  Naevi|o  po|etae. 

Cornejlius  |  Luci|us  ||  Scipi'o  Bar]batus 

Gnaevod  I  patre  |  prognajtus  ||  fortis  |  vir  sapi|ensque 

Quoius  |  forma  |  virtu  [tei  ||  parisu|ma|fuit. 

Cf.  in  English  :  — 

The  king  was  in  the  parlor,  counting  out  his  money ; 
The  queen  was  in  the  kitchen,  eating  bread  and  honey. 

a.  It  is  perhaps  best  to  consider  the  last  syllable  of  each  half 
verse  an  accented  one.*  Thus  :  — 

^J.    ^2    ^j.    2  ||  _£  w    j.^    ±t. 

NOTE  1.  The  Saturnian  is  found  chiefly  in  inscriptions.  Hiatus  is 
allowed  between  the  two  halves  of  the  verse.  The  unaccented  parts 
(arses)  of  the  verse  consist  of  a  long  syllable  or  a  short  syllable  or  two 
short  syllables.  Sometimes  an  arsis  disappears,  as  in  the  last  foot  but  one 
in  the  last  line  above.  The  accented  parts  (theses)  must  be  either  one  long 
syllable  or  two  short  syllables.  Alliteration  is  common. 

NOTE  2.  Another  view  now  frequently  held  is  that  of  O.  Keller,  that 
*'  quantity  "  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  metre,  and  that  the  accent  coin- 

*  See  Westphal,  Gr.  Metrik,  ii.,  42,  and  K.  Klotz,  Jahresber.  1883, 
p.  323. 


SATURNIAN   VERSE.  —  LOGAOEDIC   VERSE.          403 

cides  always  with  the  word-accent.  Each  half  verse  always  begins  then 
with  an  accent.*  Thus  :  — 

Dabunt  malum  Mete"lli  ||  NaeVio  poe*tae. 

Between  the  second  accented  syllable  and  the  third,  two  unaccented  syl- 
lables always  occur ;  in  other  cases  generally  only  one  unaccented  syllable. 
There  are  always  three  accented  syllables  in  the  first  half  verse,  generally 
three  in  the  second  ;  sometimes,  however,  only  two  in  the  second,  and  then 
usually  an  unaccented  syllable  before  that  half  verse  (anacrusis).  The 
arsis  even  of  the  last  foot  occasionally  consists  of  two  syllables. 

Logaoedic  Verse. 

643.  LOGAOEDIC  verse  is  a  name  given  to  a  kind  of 
verse  consisting  of  dactyls  and  trochees  (chiefly  irrational), 
from  the  resemblance  to  prose  caused  by  slight  inequalities 
in  the  time  of  the  feet  (from  Ao'yos  and  dotS^,  prose-song). 

a.  The  irrational  trochee  (or  spondee)   is  thus  represented : 
_  > ;  or  musically,  f  J"  ;  the  irrational  dactyl  is  called  a  CYCLIC 

dactyl,   and   represented   thus :    -v  ^,  or  musically,  f  f  J,  or 

nearly    /  y  y. 

644.  Logaoedic  lines  consist  almost  always  of  one  dac- 
tyl and  two,  three,  or  four  trochees.     The  dactyl  occupies 
any  foot  but  the  last.f     Thus  :  — 

Logaoedic  Dipody        -w^    -^  (Adonic) 

Logaoedic  Tripody       -w  w    -  w    -  w  (1st  Pherecratic) 

-  w    -v  \s    —v  (2d  Pherecratic) 

Logaoedic  Tetrapody  -ww    _v    _v    _v  (1st  Gly conic) 

-w    -vw    -v    -v  (2d  Glyconic) 

-w    -w    -vv    -w  (3d  Glyconic) 
Logaoedic  Pentapody  _v    _^    -uv    _w    -^  (Lesser  Sapphic) 

-w    -vw    -w    -w    -v  (Phalaecian) 

a.  These  lines  are  used,  either  as  complete  in  themselves  or 

combined  into  longer  lines,  to  make  various  forms  of  (chiefly 
strophic)  verse,  as  in  the  following  sections. 

*  See  O.  Keller,  Der  Saturnische  Vers  als  rhythmisch  erwiesen. 
t  One  logaoedic  tetrapody  occurs  with  two  dactyls,  the  lesser  Alcaic, 
thus  :    ~~\J  w      ""^  ^      —  v      —  v 


404  VERSIFICATION. 

Metres  of  Horace  and  Catullus. 

645.  The  ASCLEPIADEAN  verse  is  used  in  five  varie- 
ties, as  follows :  — 

(1.)  LESSER  (or  IST)  ASCLEPIADEAN  (2d  Pherecratic  -j-  1st 
Pherecratic).  [Not  strophic.]  Thus  :  — 

-£>    A/  w    I*  II  A/  v    -t-v    u  A 

or  musically:    f  f  '|  f  %  ?  |  f'    |  f  g  J  |  f   f|f   ^| 

Maecenas  ata|vis  ||  edite  |  regi|bus.     (Hor.,  Od.,  i.,  1.) 
Horace,  Orfes,  i.,  1 ;  iii.,  30;  iv.,  8. 

NOTE.  It  wiU  be  seen  that  the  last  foot  of  the  first  half  of  the  line 
consists  of  one  long  syllable  protracted  into  the  time  of  three  short  ones 
(cf.  613,  a),  and  that  the  last  foot  in  the  line  contains  a  rest.  Similar 
phenomena  of  course  occur  in  the  other  logaoedic  verses  given  below. 

(2.)  SECOND  ASCLEPIADEAN  (three  lesser  Asclepiadean  lines 
followed  by  a  second  Glycoiiic).  [Strophic.]  Thus  :  — 

1>      A/  w      I*  ||  A,  v      ^      SA 

-£>    A/w    £  ||  A/ v    -^    ^A 
JL>    A^w    i*  ||  A/ w    -^    ^A 

-^  >      A/w      -^w      O  A 

The  last  verse  is  musically :  | \     v\  v   K  P  I       U 

Scribe  |  ris  Vari|o  ||  fortis  et  |  hosti|um 

Victor,  |  Maeoniji  ||  carminis  |  ali|ti, 

Quam  rem  |  cumque  fe|rox  ||  navibus  |  aut  e|ques 

Miles  |  te  duce  |  gesse|rit. 

Horace,  Odes,  i.,  6,  15,  24,  33;  ii.,  12;  iii.,  10,  16;  iv.,  5,  12. 
(3.)  THIRD  ASCLEPIADEAN  (second  Gly conic  alternating  with 
a  lesser  Asclepiadean).     [Strophic.]     Thus  :  — 

-  >       —v  w       —  w       w  A 


Sic  te  |  diva  po|tens  Cy|pri 
Sic  fra|tres  Hele|nae,  ||  lucida  |  side|ra, 

Vento|rumque  re  |  gat  pa|ter 
Obstricjtis  ali  |  is  ||  praeter  I|apy|ga. 
Horace,  Odes,  i.,  3,  13,  19,  36 ;  iii.,  9,  15,  19,  24,  25,  28;  iv.,  1,  3. 


METRES  OF  HORACE  AND  CATULLUS.      405 

(4.)  FOURTH  ASCLEPIADEAN  (first  two  lines  lesser  Asclepi- 
adean,  third  line  2d  Pherecratic,  fourth  line  2d  Gly  conic). 
[Strophic.]  Thus  :  — 

-2>      <,w      12  ||   A,  w      -2v,      wA 

•!•>     -A^w      12  ||  A/  w      -^w      wA 

-2>      Ayw  12  wA 

—  >      —  v^  v  —  w      w  A 

The  last  two  lines  are,  musically  : 


Quis  mul|ta  graci|lis  ||  te  puer  |  in  ro|sa 
Perfu|sus  liquijdis  ||  urget  o|dori|bus 
Grato,  |Pyrrha,  sub  |  an|tro  ? 
Cui  fla|vam  reli|gas  co|mam. 
Horace,  Odes,  i.,  5,  14,  21,  23  ;  iii.,  7,  13  ;  iv.,  13. 
(5.)  GREATER  (or  STH)  ASCLEPIADEAN  (2d  Pherecratic  -|- 
Adonic  -j~  1st  Pherecratic).     [Not  strophic.]     Thus  :  — 


Tu  ne  |  quaesie|ris,  ||  scire  ne|fas,  ||  quern  mihi,  |  quern  tijbi. 
Horace,  Odes,  i.,  11,  18;  iv.,  10;  Catullus,  30. 

646.  The  SAPPHIC  strophe  is  used  in  two  varieties,  as 
follows  :  — 

(1.)  LESSER  SAPPHIC  (first  three  lines  lesser  Sapphic,  fourth 
line  Adonic).  Thus  :  — 


NOTE.     There  is  usually  a  caesura  after  the  long  syllable  of  the  dactyl. 


406  VERSIFICATION. 

lam  sa|tis  terjris  ||  nivis  |  atque  |  dirae 
Grandijnis  mi  |  sit  ||  pater    et  rujbente 
Dexte|ra  sa|cras  ||  iacujlatus  |  arces 
Terruit]  urbem. 

Cf.  in  English  :  — 

All  the  night  sleep  came  not  upon  my  eyelids, 
Shed  not  dew,  nor  shook  nor  unclosed  a  feather, 
Yet  with  lips  shut  close  and  with  eyes  of  iron 
Stood  and  beheld  inc. 

(Swinburne's  Sapphics.) 

Horace,  Odes,  i.,  2,  10,  12,  20,  22,  25,  30,  32,  38;  ii.,  2,  4,  6,8,  10,  16  ; 
iii.,  8,  11,  14,  18,  20,  22,  27  ;  iv.,  2,  6,  11  ;  and  the  Carm.  Saec.;  Catullus, 
11,51. 

NOTE  1.  Catullus,  in  the  only  two  poems  which  he  wrote  in  the  Sapphic 
metre,  differs  from  Horace  in  occasionally  using-  a  real  trochee  in  the  second 
foot,  and  in  sometimes  neglecting1  the  caesura,  or  putting  it  between  the 
short  syllables  of  the  dactyl. 

NOTE  2.  The  last  two  lines  are  occasionally  run  together  by  both  Horace 
and  Catullus  ;  as  :  — 

Labijtur  ripa  il  love  |  non  pro  |  banteCu- 

xorius  |  amnis.  (Hor.,  Od.,  i.,  2,  lines  19-20.) 

NOTE  3.  The  Sapphic  line  is  sometimes  divided  as  follows  :  — 


(2.)  GREATER  SAPPHIC  (1st  Pherecratic  [Aristophanic]  alter- 
nating with  a  greater  Sapphic  line  (i.  e.,  3d  Glyconic  -\-  1st 
Pherecratic).  Thus  :  — 


Lydia  |  die  per    om  nes 

Te  de|6s  ojro  Syba|rin  ||  cur  prope|res  a|man|do. 

,  Odes,  i.  8. 


METRES    OF   HORACE   AND   CATULLUS.  407 

647.  The  ALCAIC  strophe  *  consists  of  two  greater  Al- 
caic lines  (i.  e.,  lesser  Sapphic  lines,  catalectic  with  ana* 
crusis),  a  trochaic  dimeter  with  anacrusis,  and  a  lesser 
Alcaic.  Thus  :  — 

-£>      -A^v      -^  v      w  A 
—  >       ~W  w       —  w       w  A 


<*  r  \rc\rt-\rtt\rt  r- 

nrfirri 

r?  ifp- 


Vijdes  ut  |  alta  |  stet  nive  |  candi|dum 
Sojracte,  |  nee  iam  |  sustine  ant  o|nus 
Siljvae  la|boran|tes,  ge|luque 

Flumina  |  constite|rint  a|cuto. 
Cf.  in  English  :  - 

O  mighty-mouth'd  inventor  of  harmonies, 
O  skill'd  to  sing  of  Time  or  Eternity, 
God-gifted  organ-voice  of  England, 
Milton,  a  name  to  resound  for  ages. 

(Tennyson's  Ode  to  Milton.) 

Horace,  Odes,  i.,  9,  16,  17,  26,  27,  29,  31,  34,  35,  37  ;  ii.,  1,  3,  5,  7,  9,  11, 
13,  14,  15,  17,  19,  20;  iii.,  1,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  17,  21,  23,  26,  29  ;  iv.,  4,  9,  14,  15. 

648.  The  GLYCONIC-PHERECRATIC  verse  is  used  in  two 
forms  by  Catullus,  as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  A  strophic  form  (consisting  of  three,  or  four,  2d  Gly- 
conic  verses  and  one  2d  Pherecratic).  Thus  :  — 

—  w      A/w      -w      -A 
•^^      -ww      -w      -A 

—  w      -v  w      —  \j      —  A 

-£w      A/w      U      -A 

*  Also  called  the  HORATIAN  stanza,  because  Horace  uses  it  more  than 
any  of  the  other  logaoedic  verses. 


408  VERSIFICATION. 

Dia|nae  sumus  |  in  fijde 
Puel|lae~et  pue|rPmte|gri : 
Dla|nam  pue|ri2inte|gri 

Puel|laeque  ca|na|mus.  (Catull.,  34.) 

Nil  po|test  sine  |  te  Ve|nus, 
Fama  I  quod  bona  |  compro|bet, 
Commo|di  cape  |  re?  at  po|test 
Te  vo|lente.     Quis  |  huic  de|o 

Compalrarier  j  au|sit?  (Catull.,  61.) 

Catullus,  34,  61. 

NOTE.  The  first  foot  is  usually  a  trochee,  but  sometimes  a  spondee,  or 
even  (as  in  the  first  strophe  above)  an  iambus.  Cf.  Greek  usage.  One 
verse  (61,  25)  has  a  spondee  instead  of  the  dactyl. 

(2.)  A  form  not  strophic,  called  the  PRIAPEAN  verse,  in 
which  the  Glyconic  and  Pherecratic  make  together  a  single 
line.  Thus  :  — 

•£  w     A/v     -^  v     I*  ||  -  w     -A^w     I*     w  A 
O  Co  |  Ionia,  |  quae  cujpis  ||  ponte  |  ludere  |  Ion  | go. 
Catullus,  17. 

649.  The  PHALAECIAN  verse  (Jiendecasylldble)  is  a 
logaoedic  pentapody  with  dactyl  in  the  second  place. 
Thus:- 


Cui  do  |  no  lepi|dum  no|vum  lijbellum. 
Cf .  in  English  : 

Look,  I  come  to  the  test,  a  tiny  poem 
All  composed  in  a  metre  of  Catullus. 

(Tennyson's  Hendecasyllabics.) 

Catullus,  1,  2,  3,  5,  6,  7,  9,  10,  12,  13,  14,  15,  16,  21,  23,  24,  26,  27,  28, 
32,  33,  35,  36,  38,  40,  41,  42,  43,  45,  46,  47,  48, 49,  50,  53,  54,  55,  56,  57, 
58,  58b. 

NOTE.     The  first  foot  is  occasionally  a  real  trochee,  or  even  an  iambus. 


METRES   OF  HORACE  AND  CATULLUS.  409 

Other  kinds  of  verse  (not  logaoedic)  are  used  by  Horace  or 
Catullus  as  follows  :  — 

Strophic  Metres. 

650.  The  HIPPONACTEAN  strophe  consists  of  a  trochaic 
dimeter  catalectic  alternating  with  an  iambic  trimeter 
catalectic.  Thus  :  — 

—  v      —  w      —  v./      w  A 


Non  ejbur  ne|que~aure[um 
Mea  I  reni|det||in|domo  |  lacujnar. 
Horace,  Odes,  ii.,  18. 

651.  The  PYTHIAMBIC  strophe  consists  of  a  dactylic 
hexameter  alternating  with  an  iambic  dimeter  acatalectic. 
Thus  :  — 


w  —       v^  —       w  —       ww 

Mollis  in|ertia    cur  ||  tan  |  tarn  dif  |fuderit  |  irais 

Obli  vio|nem  sen|sibus. 
Horace,  Ep.,  14,  15. 

652.  The  2D  PYTHIAMBIC  strophe   consists  of  a  dac- 
tylic hexameter  alternating  with  a  pure  iambic  trimeter 
(acatalectic).     Thus  :  — 

—  vJw      —  \J\J      —  II  <Jw      -^  vJw      -^  w  w      -^  C 
v/—       w—       w||—       w/—       w  —  •       wvlx 

Altera  |  iam  teri|tur  ||  bel|lis  ci|vilibus  |  aetas, 

Suis  |  et  i[p^a  ||  Ro|ma  vi|ribus  |  ruit. 
Horace,  Ep.,  16. 

653.  The   IAMBIC   strophe   consists  of  an  iambic  tri- 
meter alternating  with  an  iambic  dimeter.     Thus  :  — 

w-£       w-       w  M       v  -       ^-      vw 
\3  —       w—       w—       ww 

Ibis  I  Libur|ms  [|  in|ter  al|ta  na|vium, 

Ami  |  ce  ,  pro  |  pu  gna  |  cula. 
Horace,  Ep.,  I,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10. 


OF  THR 

OTNIVERSITY 


410  VERSIFICATION. 

654.  The  ARCHILOCHIAN  strophe  occurs  in  four  forms, 
as  follows  :  — 

(1.)  IST  ARCHILOCHIAN  (see  617). 

Horace,  Odes,  iv.,  7. 

(2.)  2o  ARCHILOCHIAN  (consisting  of  a  dactylic  hexameter 
alternating  with  a  so-called  iambelic  line  [i.  e.,  an  iambic  dime- 
ter -|-  a  dactylic  penthemimeris]).  Thus  :  — 

-£  vsJ       -£  v^       -  ||  vw       -£  vJv^       -^  w  w       -  s5 
w  —       w  —       w  —       v  —  II        —  ww       —  w^/       w 

Horrida  |  tempe|stas  ||  caejlum  cofi|traxit,  et    imbres 

Nivesjque  de|ducunt  ]  lovem  ;  ||  nunc  mare,  |  nunc  silu|ae. 
Horace,  Ep.,  13. 

(3.)  3D  ARCHILOCHIAX  (consisting  of  an  iambic  trimeter  and 
a  so-called  elegiambic  line  [i.  e.,  a  dactylic  penthemimeris  -|-  an 
iambic  dimeter]).  Thus  :  — 

w—      v  —      w||—       w—      w—      v/w 

—  wv^      —  w^/      —  (I       v—      w—      v—      vw 

Petti,  I  nihil  |  me  ||  sic|ut  an  [tea  |  iuvat 
Scribere  |  versicujlos  ||  amo]re  per  cursum    gravi. 
Horace,  Ep.,  11. 

(4.)  4TH  ARCHILOCHIAX  (consisting  of  a  greater  Archilo- 
chian  [i.  e.,  a  dactylic  tetrameter  -j-  a  trochaic  tripody]  alter- 
nating with  an  iambic  trimeter  catalectic).  Thus  :  — 

—  vv       -  sJv        -       vw      —  vJL»       —  v      -  v      -  w 


Solvitur  |  acris  hi  |  ems  ||  grajta  vice  ||  veris  |  et  Fa|vom, 

Trahunt|que  sic|cas  ||  ma|chinae  |  carl|nas. 
Horace,  Odes,  i.,  4. 

655.  ALCMANIAN  strophe.     (See  616.) 

Horace,  Odes,  L,  7,  28;  Ep.t  12. 

656.  LESSER  loxic  strophe  [Ionic  a  minore].     (See 
633.) 

Horace,  Odes,  iii.,  12. 


METRES   OF   HORACE   AND   CATULLUS.  411 

Metres  Not  Strophlc. 

657.  The  GALLIAMBIC  metre  is  a  lesser  Ionic  tetra- 
meter, employed  by  Catullus  with  various  irregularities. 
The  scheme  is  as  follows  :  — 

ww       —  w   I    —  v./       —  —   ||  w  w       —  w   I   v  w  w  — 

Super  alta  |  vectus  Attis  ||  celeri  ra|te  maria. 

Catullus,  63. 

NOTE  1.  The  first  two  Ionic  feet  always  suffer  anaclasis,  so  called,  i.  e  , 
two  trochees  are  substituted  for  the  last  two  (long)  syllables  of  the  first  and 
the  first  two  (short)  of  the  second.  Thus,  instead  ofww  —  -  |  w  -  - 
is  read  ww  -wl-w  —  -•  An  irregular  anaclasis  takes  place  in  the 
second  two  Ionic  feet  (see  the  scheme). 

NOTE  2.  For  the  (apparent)  pyrrhic  thus  resulting  at  the  beginning  of 
each  half  of  the  verse  may  be  substituted  a  spondee  or  a  proceleusmatie  ; 
for  the  first  pyrrhic,  also  a  tribrach. 

NOTE  3.  The  variation  of  the  ictus  from  the  ordinary  ictus  of  the  lesser 
Ionic  foot  should  be  observed,  as  given  in  the  scheme  above. 

658.  The  following  measures,  already  treated,  are  also 
used :  — 

(1.)  Pure  IAMBIC  TRIMETER.     (See  627.) 
Horace,  Ep.,  17;  Catullus,  4,  29,  52* 

(2.)  CHOLIAMBIC.     (See  628.) 
Catullus,  8,  22,  31,  37,  39,  44,  59,  60. 

(3.)  IAMBIC  SEPTENARIUS.     (See  625.) 
Catullus,  25. 

(4.)  DACTYLIC  HEXAMETER.     (See  614.) 
Horace,  Satires  and  Epistles ;  Catullus,  62,  64. 

(5.)  ELEGIAC.     (See  615.) 
Catullus,  65,  66,  67,  68,  and  69-116. 

NOTE.  The  spondee  may  be  used  instead  of  an  iambus  in  the  metres 
treated  in  650-658  only  in  the  first  and  third  feet,  as  a  rule.  In  the 
iambic  strophe,  the  3d  Archilochian,  and  the  choliambic,  resolution  is  occa- 
sionally employed.  The  trochaic  lines  or  part  lines  admit  no  substitutions 
or  resolutions.  The  iambic  alternate  line  in  the  second  Pythiambic  strophe 
is  also  a,  pure  line  (i.  e.,  has  only  the  iambus). 

*  This  quatrain,  however,  has  spondees  in  the  first  and  third  feet  of  two 
of  the  lines. 


APPENDIX. 


GRAMMATICAL   FIGURES. 

NOTE.  Most  of  the  technical  terms  used  to  name  the  so-called  FIGURES 
OF  SPEECH  have  now  gone  out  of  use,*  but  the  following  are  still  met 
with  often  enough  to  make  it  worth  while  to  define  them  briefly. 

659.  (1.)  ALLITERATION  is  the  repetition  of  words  or  sylla- 
bles beginning  with  the  same  letter  (or  sound)  ;  as  :  — 

O  Tite,  tilte,  Tati,  tUn  tanta,  ty ramie,  tulisti  (Ennius  apud 
Cornif.,  Rhet.,  4,  18). 

(2.)  AMPHIBOLIA  is  the  use  of  equivocal  words  or  construc- 
tions ;  as  :  — 

Gallus  =  "a,  Gaul"  or  "a  cock;"  did  te.  Aeacidd,  R5- 
manos  vincere  posse,  I  say  that  you,  O  son  of  Aeacus,  the 
Romans  can  conquer  (Enn.,  apud  Cic.,  Dw.,  ii.,  56,  116). 

(3.)  ANACOLUTHON  is  a  disagreement  in  construction  between 
the  latter  and  the  earlier  part  of  a  sentence  ;  as  :  — 

Nam  n5s  omnes,  quibus  est  alicunde  aliquis  obiectus  labos, 
omne  quod  est  interea  tempus,  priusquam  id  rescitum  est, 
Iucr5  est,  for  [to]  all  of  us  upon  whom  some  hardship  is 
hurled  from  some  quarter,  the  intervening  time  before  we  dis- 
cover it  is  so  much  gain  (Ter.). 

The  anacoluthon  could  be  avoided  by  using  either  nos  omties 
.  .  .  lucro  habemus,  or  nobis  omnibus  .  .  .  lucrd  est. 

(4.)  ANAPHORA  is  the  repetition  of  a  word  or  of  correspond- 
ing words,  in  the  same  order  in  successive  clauses  or  sentences  ; 
as :  — 

Nihilne  te  noctui*num  praesidium  palafi,  nihil  urbis  vigi- 
liae,  nihil  timor  populi  .  .  .  moverunt  ?  have  the  guarding  of 

*  A  few  have  become  so  common  as  applied  to  English  also  that  they 
need  no  special  mention. 


GKAMMATICAL    FIGURES.  413 

the  Palatine  by  night,  the  patrol  of  the  city,  the  fear  of  the 
people,  produced  no  effect  upon  you  ?  (Cic.,  in  Cat.,  i.)  Cf. 
also  598,  1. 

(5.)  ANTITHESIS  is  the  placing  of  different  words  or  senti- 
ments in  contrast ;  as  :  — 

Caesar  beneficiis  ac  munificentia  magnus  habebatur  ; 
integritate  vitae  Cat5,  Caesar  was  thought  great  for  his 
favors  and  generosity,  Cato  for  the  purity  of  his  life  (Sail.,  Cat., 
54,  2).  Cf.  also  598. 

(6.)  APOCOPE  is  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  syllable  at  the 
end  of  a  word  ;  as,  men1  for  mene.  Cf.  also  63,  ii. 

(7.)  APOSTROPHE  is  the  turning  off  from  the  course  of  the  sub- 
ject, to  address  some  absent  person  or  personified  thing  ;  as  :  — 

Quid  rion  mortdlia  pectora  c5gis,  aurl  sacra  fames  ?  what 
dost  thou  not  drive  the  heart  of  man  to  do,  accursed  hunger  for 
gold?  (Verg.,  Ae.,  Hi.,  56). 

y  (8.)  ASYNDETON  is  the  omission  of  the  connective  between 
words  or  sentences  ;  as  :  — 

Abiit,  excessit,  evasit,  erupit  (Cic.,  Cat.,  ii.,  1,  l). 

(9.)  BARBARISM  is  the  use  of  a  foreign  word,  or  a  violation 
of  spelling  or  the  rules  of  word-formation  or  metre  in  the  use 
of  a  word  ;  as,  rigorosus  for  rigidus. 

(10.)  CHIASMUS  is  the  placing  of  corresponding  words  in  op- 
posite orders  in  successive  clauses  or  sentences.  See  the  exam- 
ple under  Antithesis  above,  and  cf.  also  598,  2. 

(11.)  CRASIS  is  the  contraction  of  two  vowels  into  one ;  as, 
cogo  for  co-ago  /  nil  for  nihil. 

(12.)  ELLIPSIS  is  the  omission  of  a  word  or  words  in  a  sen- 
tence ;  as,  quid  multa?  (sc.  dicam)  ;  ad  Didnae  (sc.  aedem). 

(13.)  EPANALEPSIS  is  a  return  to  the  subject  by  the  repeti- 
tion of  a  word  or  sentence  after  interrupting  words  or  clauses. 
(See  Verg.,  Georg.,  ii.,  lines  4-7.) 

(14.)  HENDIADYS  is  the  expression  of  an  idea  by  two  con- 
nected nouns  instead  of  a  noun  modified  by  an  adjective  or  a 
genitive ;  as  :  — 

Paterls  libdmus  et  auro  (for  paterls  aureis),  we  pour  a 
libation  from  golden  bowls  (Verg.,  Geor.,  ii.,  192). 


414  APPENDIX. 

(15.)  HYP  ALL  AGE  is  an  interchange  of  constructions;  as  :  — 

In  nova  fert  animus  nmtatas  dicer e  f ormas  corpora  (for 
corpora  mutata  in  novas  f  ormas),  my  mind  leads  me  to  tell 
of  bodies  changed  into  new  shapes  (Ovid,  M.,  L,  1). 

(16.)  HYPERBATON  is  the  displacement  of  a  word  from  its 
connection  in  a  clause  or  sentence  ;  as  :  — 

Ut  ulla  intermissio  fiat  offici  (instead  of  ut  ulla  intermis- 
sid  offici  fiat)  (Cic.,  Am.,  2,  8). 

(17.)  HYPERBOLE  is  the  exaggeration  or  diminishing  a  thing 
beyond  the  truth  ;  as  :  — 

Ipse  arduus  altaque  pulsat  sidera,  towering  he  stands  and 
strikes  the  stars  on  high  (Verg.,  Ae.,  iii.,  619). 

(18.)  HYSTERON  PROTERON  is  a  reversal  of  the  natural  order 
of  the  sense  ;  as  :  — 

Moriamur  et  in  media  arma  ruamus,  let  us  die  and  rush 
into  the  midst  of  the  battle  (Verg.,  Ae.,  ii.,  353). 

(19.)  LITOTES  is  a  mode  of  assertion  by  denying  the  con- 
trary ;  as,  non  laudo  =.  I  blame ;  rion  innoxia  verba  =  harmful 
words. 

(20.)  METATHESIS  is  the  transposition  of  letters  in  a  word  ; 
as,  cerno  beside  cretus.  Cf.  also  72. 

(21.)  METONYMY  is  the  substitution  of  the  name  of  one  thing 
for  another  to  which  it  has  a  certain  relation,  as  the  cause  for 
the  effect,  the  sign  for  the  thing  signified,  etc.  Thus  :  — 

Fruges  Cererem  appeUamus,  vinum  autem  LIberum,  we 
call  the  crops  Ceres  and  wine  Bacchus  (Cic.,  N.  Z).,  ii.,  23,  60)  ; 
cedant  arma  togae,  let  arms  yield  to  the  toga  [i.  e.,  war  to 
peace]  (Cic.,  Poet.  frag.). 

(22.)  OXYMORON  is  the  union  of  words  of  contrary  meanings 
in  such  a  way  as  to  produce  a  seeming  contradiction ;  as  :  — 

Concordia  discors  ;  cum  tacent,  clamant. 

(23.)  PARONOMASIA  is  a  play 'upon  the  similarity  of  sound 
between  words  ;  as  :  — 

Amor  et  melle  et  felle  est  fecund 'issimus  (Plaut.,  Cist.,  i.,  1, 
70)  ;  c~ivem  bonarum  artium,  bonarum  partium  (Cic.). 


GRAMMATICAL   FIGURES.  415 

(24.)  PERIPHRASIS  is  another  name  for  circumlocution ;  as, 
tenerl  fetus  ovium,  tender  offspring  of  sheep  (for  agrii, 
lambs). 

(25.)  PLEONASM  is  the  use  of  more  words  than  are  necessary 
to  convey  the  meaning  ;  as  :  — 

Sic  ore  locuta  est  (Verg.,  Ae.,  i.,  614). 

(26.)  PROLEPSIS  is  the  anticipation  of  an  idea  before  it  ap- 
pears ;  as :  — 

Fugaees  terrere  equos,  to  frighten  the  horses  so  as  to  make 
them  flee  (cf.  Hor.,  Od.,  ii.,  1,  19). 

(27.)  PROSOPOPCEIA  is  another  name  for  personification ; 
as  :  — 

Virtus  intaminatls  fidget  horioribus,  true  merit  shines  with 
unsullied  honors  (Hor.,  Od.,  iii.,  2,  17). 

(28.)  SOLECISM  is  a  violation  of  the  rules  of  syntax ;  as,  — 
Venus  pulcher  (for  pulchra)  ;  vos  (for  vobis)  invidemus. 

(29.)  SYNCOPE  is  the  omission  of  a  letter  or  syllable  in  the 
middle  of  a  word  ;  as,  asprls  for  asperis.  Cf.  also  63,  i. 

(30.)  SYNECDOCHE  is  the  use  of  the  whole  for  a  part,  the 
genus  for  the  species,  the  singular  for  the  plural,  the  material 
for  the  thing  made,  or  the  opposites  of  these ;  as,  tectum  for 
domus  ;  font  em  for  aquam. 

(31.)  TAUTOLOGY  is  the  repetition  of  an  idea  in  different 
words  ;  as  :  — 

lam  vos  aciem  et  proelia  et  hostem  poscitis,  now  you  de- 
mand the  battle  line,  the  fight,  the  foe  (Sil.). 

(32.)  TMESIS  is  the  separation  of  the  parts  of  a  word  ;  as :  — 

Septem  subiecta  tri5ni  gens,  a  people  dwelling  in  the  far 
north  (Verg.,  Geor.,  iii.,  381) ;  quae  me  cumque  vacant  ter- 
rae,  whatever  lands  call  me  (Verg.,  Ae.,  i.,  610). 

(33.)  ZEUGMA  is  the  use  of  a  word  in  two  or  more  expres- 
sions, when  it  is  strictly  applicable  to  only  one  of  them  ;  as  :  — 

Pacem  an  bellum  gerens,  waging  peace  or  war  ?  (gerere  not 
being  a  word  which  strictly  applies  to  pax)  ;  semperne  in  san- 
guine, f err5,  fuga  versdbimur  ? 


416  APPENDIX. 

MODES  OP  RECKONING. 

TIME. 

660.  (1.)  The  Roman  day  was  reckoned  from  sunrise  to  sun- 
set, and  this  time  was  always  divided  into  twelve  hours  (horae). 
The  night,  reckoned  from  sunset  to  sunrise,  was  also  divided  into 
twelve  hours.  Therefore  the  hours  were  not  of  a  fixed  length, 
as  with  us,  but  varied  with  the  season  of  the  year.  At  the  equi- 
noxes they  had,  like  our  hours,  a  uniform  length  of  sixty  minutes 
each.  Between  the  vernal  and  the  autumnal  equinox  the  hours 
of  daylight  were  more  than  sixty  minutes  long ;  between  the 
autumnal  and  the  vernal  equinox,  less  than  sixty  minutes. 

NOTE  1.  In  camp,  the  night  was  also  divided  into  four  watches  (vigiliae) 
of  three  (Roman)  hours  each,  the  second  ending  at  midnight  and  the  fourth 
at  sunrise. 

(2.)  In  early  times  the  Roman  year  began  with  March,  and 
the  names  Quinctilis  (July),  Sextilis  (August),  September,  etc., 
indicated  the  distance  of  these  months  from  the  beginning  of  the 
year.  The  number  of  days  in  the  year  was  355,  divided  be- 
tween the  months  as  follows  :  March,  May,  July,  and  October, 
31  each  ;  February,  28  ;  and  the  others,  29  each.  Every  other 
year  the  Pontifices  might  put  in  an  extra  month  after  the  23d 
of  February. 

(3.)  In  46  B.  c.  Julius  Caesar  reformed  the  calendar,  putting 
it  upon  its  present  basis.*  In  leap-year,  February  24th  was 
counted  twice.  Hence  the  name  Bissextile -tor  leap-year  (Feb- 
ruary 24th  being  the  sixth  day  before  the  first  of  March).  The 
names  Quinctilis  and  Sextilis  were  afterwards  changed  to 
Julius  and  Augustus,  in  honor  of  Caesar  and  his  grand-nephew. 

(4.)  The  Romans  counted  their  days  backwards  from  three 
fixed  points  in  each  month :  the  Calends  f  (Kalendae),  i.  e., 

*  Except  for  the  slight  change  introduced  by  Pope  Gregory  XIII.  in 
1582  by  which  the  closing  year  of  a  century  (1700,  1800.  1900,  etc.)  is  not 
counted  as  leap-year,  unless  its  number  is  divisible  by  400  (1600,  2000,  etc.). 

t  So  called  because  the  priests  then  announced  the  new-  moon.  (Cf .  ca- 
Idre.) 


MODES   OF   RECKONING:   TIME.  417 

the  first  of  the  month ;  the  Ides  *  (Idus),  i.  e.,  the  13th  of  most 
months,  but  the  15th  of  March,  May,  July,  and  October ;  and  the 
Nones  |  (Nonae),  i.  e.,  the  5th,  except  in  March,  May,  July  and 
October,  when  it  is  the  7th.  Therefore  : 

a.  To  reduce  a  Latin  date  to  English  terms :  — 

i.  If  reckoned  from  the  Calends,  add  two  to  the  number  of 
days  in  the  preceding  month,  and  subtract  the  given  date. 

ii.  Otherwise,  add  one  to  the  day  on  which  the  Nones  or  Ides 
fall,  and  subtract  the  given  date. 
Thus  :  — 

XV  Kal.  Quinct.  =:  30  +  2  — 15  =  17th  of  June. 
IV  Non.  Ian.        =   5  +  1  -  -   4  =  2dof  January. 
VIIdusMaias    =15  +  1—   6  =  10th  of  May. 

b.  To  reduce  an  English  date  to  Latin  terms :  — 

i.  If  later  than  the  Ides  of  a  given  month,  add  two  to  the 
number  of  days  in  the  month,  and  subtract  the  date. 

ii.  Otherwise,  add  one  to  the  day  on  which  the  Ides  or  Nones 
fall  in  the  given  month,  and  subtract  the  date. 

Thus  :  — 

April  3d  =5  +  1—    3  =  111  Non.  April. 
Dec.  10th  =  13  + 1  —  10  =  IV  Id.  Dec. 
Aug.  22d  =31  +  2  —  22  =  XI  Kal.  Sept. 

NOTE  1.  The  day  before  the  Calends,  Nones,  or  Ides  is  called  pridie 
Kalendds,  Nonas,  or  Idas.  The  Romans  in  reckoning  counted  both  the 
starting-point  and  the  day  arrived  at ;  therefore  they  had  no  die  secundo 
Kalendds,  etc.,  but  the  second  day  before  the  Calends  was  die  tertio  Kal,, 
and  similarly  with  regard  to  the  Nones  and  Ides. 

NOTE  2.  In  leap-year  the  24th  of  February  was  called  dies  bisextus,  as 
the  year  was  called  annus  bisextus.  Sometimes  both  the  24th  and  25th 
were  called  VI  Kal.  Mart. 

NOTE  3.  Before  the  year  46  B.  C.  the  number  of  days  in  the  months  of 
the  old  year  should,  strictly,  be  taken  in  transferring  dates,  not  the  number 
of  days  in  our  months ;  and  that  makes  the  problem  much  more  complicated. 

(5.)  The  Romans  indicated  the  year  officially  by  the  names 
of  its  consuls.  The  Roman  authors,  however,  sometimes  reck- 
oned years  from  the  founding  of  Rome  (753  B.  c.)4 

*  The  time  of  full  moon. 

t  By  Roman  reckoning,  the  ninth  day  before  the  Ides. 

{  Indicated  thus  :   A.  u.  c.  (i.  e.,  anno  urbis  conditae). 


418  APPENDIX. 

a.  To  reduce  a  year  thus  reckoned  to  English  terms  :  — 

i.  If  the  number  is  less  than  754,  subtract  it  from  754,  and 
the  result  gives  the  year  B.  c. 

ii.  If  greater  than  753,  subtract  753  from  it,  and  the  result 
is  the  corresponding  year  of  our  era. 
Thus :  — 

A.  u.  c.  684  =  754  —  684  =  70  B.  c. 
A.  u.  c.  767  =  767  —  753  =  A.  D.  14. 

b.  To  reduce  a  date  B.  c.  or  A.  D.  to  the  equivalent  A.  u.  C. 
i.  If  the  year  is  B.  c.,  subtract  the  number  from  754. 

ii.  If  the  year  is  A.  D.,  add  the  number  to  753. 
Thus  :  — 

105  B.  c.  =  754  —  105  =  A.  u.  c.  649. 
A.  D.  115  =  753  -f  115  =  A.  u.  c.  868. 
(6.)  The  Romans  divided  the  year  into  festival  days  or  holi- 
days (dies  festl)  and  non-festival  or  working  days  (dies  pro- 
fest%).     They  also  distinguished  as  dies  fasti  the  days  on  which 
it  was  lawful  to  hold  court,  calling  other  days  dies  nefastl* 

NOTE  1.  Besides  various  festivals  celebrated  upon  special  occasions, 
such  as  the  ludl  mdgrii  (great  games)  and  the  ludl  saeculdres  (centennial 
games),  the  Romans  had  several  stated  festivals  occurring  at  fixed  times  in 
the  year.  The  most  important  are  the  following :  — 

Lupercdlia.  Feb.  15;  Quirlndlia,  Feb.  17;  Qulnqudtrus  (Festival  of 
Minerva),  March  19-23;  Ludl  Megalenses  (Megalensia),  April  4-10; 
Parllia  or  Palilia,  April  21;  Ludl  Flordles  (F  lor  alia),  April  28-May  3; 
Ludl  Apollinares.  July  6-13  ;  Neptundlia,  July  23  ;  Consudlia,  Aug.  21 
and  Dec.  15;  Ludl  Rdmant.Sept.  4-19;  Ludl  Capitolirii,  Oct.  15;  Ludl 
Plebel,  Nov.  4-17;  Saturnalia,  Dec.  17-23. 

The  anniversaries  of  the  defeat  at  Lake  Trasumennus  (June  23)  and  the 
defeat  by  the  Cimbri  in  105  B.  c.  (Oct.  6)  were  known  as  dies  dtrl  (black 
days). 

NOTE  2.  In  the  late  empire,  when  the  division  of  the  month  into  weeks 
was  introduced  at  Rome,  the  days  were  named  as  follows  :  — 

Sunday  =  dies  Solis  ;  Monday  =  dies  Lunae  ;  Tuesday  =  dies  Mdrtis  ; 
Wednesday  =  dies  Mercuril  ;  Thursday  =  dies  lovis ;  Friday  =  dies  Vene- 
ris ;  Saturday  =  dies  Sdturnl.  Sunday  is  also  called  dies  dominica  (i.  e., 
the  Lord's  day). 

*  For  a  complete  calendar  of  special  days,  see  Preller's  Edmische  Mytho- 
logie,  pp.  797  if. 


ROMAN   CALENDAR. 


419 


THE  ROMAN  CALENDAR. 

661.  The  following  table  shows  the  correspondence  of  our 
calendar  with  that  of  the  Romans. 


Days  of  our 
months. 

MAR.   MAI. 
JUL.    OCT. 

JAN.  AUG. 
DEC. 

APR.   JUN. 
SEPT.    Nov. 

FEB. 

1 

Kalendae. 

Kalendse. 

Kalendse. 

Kalendae. 

2 

VI     N5nas. 

IV     Nonas. 

IV     Nonas. 

IV     Nonas. 

3 

V 

Ill          " 

Ill 

Ill 

4 

IV 

Pridie     " 

Pridie  " 

Pridie    " 

5 

III 

Nonae. 

Nonae. 

Nonae. 

6 

Pridie    " 

VIII    Idus. 

VIII    Idus. 

VIII    Idus. 

7 

Nonae. 

VII 

VII 

VII 

8           1  VIII  Idus. 

VI 

VI 

VI 

9 

VII 

V 

V 

V 

10 

VI 

IV 

IV 

IV 

11 

V 

III 

III 

III 

12 

IV 

Pridie      ' 

Pridie 

Pridie 

13 

III 

Idus. 

Idus. 

Idus. 

14 

Pridie    ' 

XIX     Kal.* 

XVIII  K 

al* 

XVI    K 

al* 

15 

Idus. 

XVIII    " 

XVII 

XV 

16 

XVII  Kal  * 

XVII     " 

XVI 

XIV 

17 

XVI      ' 

XVI 

XV 

XIII 

18 

XV       ' 

XV 

XIV 

XII 

19 

XIV      ' 

XIV       " 

XIII 

XI 

20 

XIII     ' 

XIII       " 

XII 

X 

21 

XII 

XII 

XI 

IX 

22 

XI 

XI          " 

X 

VIII 

2> 

X 

X 

IX 

VII 

24 

IX 

IX 

VIII 

VI 

25 

VIII     ' 

VIII      " 

VII 

V 

26 

VII       « 

VII        " 

VI 

IV 

27 

VI 

VI 

V 

III 

28 

V 

V 

IV 

Pridie 

29 

IV        ' 

IV 

III 

30 

III 

III       " 

Pridie 

31 

Pridie    ' 

Pridie     " 

NOTE.     In  leap-year  the  last   seven  days  of  February  were  reckoned 
thus :  — 

23.  VII  Kalendds  Martids.  27.     IV        Kal.    Mdrt. 

24.  Bisexto   "  "  28.     Ill 

25.  VI          "  "  29.     Pridie    "          " 

26.  V 

Cf.  also  660,  4,  Note  2. 

*  I,  e.j  of  course,  the  Calends  of  the  following  month. 


420 


APPENDIX. 


MONEY,  WEIGHTS,  AND  MEASURES. 
662.   (1.)  The  Roman  system  of  reckoning  was  a  duodecimal 
one,  in  which  the  smaller  unit  (-fa)  was  called  uncia,  the  larger 
unit,  as.     Thus  :  — 


12  unciae                           = 

if 

or  1 

as 

11 

u 

or 

deunx 

— 

ii 

a 

10 

n 

a 

dextans 

=. 

it 

"•f 

it 

9 

n 

n 

dodrans 

\  

& 

it       3_ 

it 

8 

a 

a 

bes 

•=. 

ft 

"  1 

n 

7 

n 

it 

septunx 

=. 

TV 

it 

6 

tt 

a 

semis 

= 

ft 

"  4 

it 

5 

it 

a 

quincunx 

= 

ft 

" 

4 

it 

a 

triens 

=. 

1\ 

4<      1 

" 

3 

a 

tt 

quadrans 

r= 

A 

"  i 

n 

2 

it  • 

tt 

sextans 

— 

T2* 

"    i 

« 

sescuncia      = 


A 


1    uncia  =      ^ 

NOTE.     The  uncia  was  subdivided  as  follows :  — 

Semuncia  =  £    uncia 

Binae  sextulae  =  £       " 

Sicilieus  =  l       » 

Sextula  ==  l       " 

Dimidia  sextula  =  Jg.      "       ';  ^1^  " 

Scripulum  =  ^      "       "  ^  " 

[Dimidium  scripulum]  =  ^      "       "  -gi^.  <{ 

(2.)  The  as  was  thus  the  real  unit  of  measurement,  and  the 
special  units  in  different  kinds  of  measures  and  weights  were 
treated  as  asses,  and  subdivided  into  twelfths. 

663.  MONEY. 

1  as  =  originally  about  a  pound  of  copper. 
2^  asses           =  1  sestertius  or  nummus          =  about    5  cts. 

2  sestertii      =  1  quinarius  =     "      10  cts. 
2     quinarii      =  1  denarius                                 =     "      20  cts. 
25  denarii       =  1  (nummus)  aureus                 =     "      $5. 
1000  sestertii  =  1  sestertium 


MONEY,   WEIGHTS,    AND   MEASURES. 

NOTE  1.  Originally  all  the  Roman  coins  were  copper :  namely,  the  as  and 
its  fractions.  The  sestertius,  quindrius,  and  denarius  were  introduced  later, 
and  were  silver ;  the  denarius  was  at  first  equal  to  ten  asses,  but  after- 
wards the  as  was  depreciated,  and  the  denarius  was  equal  to  sixteen  asses. 
The  aureus  was  of  gold,  and  was  first  struck  during  the  second  Punic  war. 

NOTE  2.  For  sums  from  2,000  to  1,000,000  sesterces,  mille,  milia,  with  ses- 
tertium  (genitive  plural),  were  used,  or  sestertium  as  a  neuter  noun.  Thus : — 

Quadrdgintd  milia  sestertium  or  quadrdgintd  sestertia  =  40,000  sesterces. 

NOTE  3.  For  sums  from  1,000,000  sesterces  upwards,  the  combination 
decies  (vicies,  etc.)  centena  milia  sestertium  was  used,  and  the  words  centena 
milia  were  generally  omitted.  Thus  :  — 

Decies  sestertium  =  1,000,000  sesterces;  centies  sestertium  =  10,000,000 
sesterces. 

Sometimes  the  numeral  adverb  was  used  alone.     Thus :  — 

Decies  =  1,000,000  sesterces. 

NOTE  4.  Sesterces  were  indicated  by  the  sign  US.     A  line  over  this  in- 
dicated thousands,  lines  on  the  sides  also  hundreds  of  thousands.     Thus :  — 
_HS.  DCC  =  700  sestertii;  HS.  D  =  500,000  sestertii,  or  500  sestertia; 
|HS.|  DCCC  =  80,000,000  sestertii. 

664.  WEIGHTS. 

4  scripula     =     1  sextula. 
2  sextulae    =     1  sicilicus. 
4  slcilici       =     1  uncia. 
12  unciae       =     1  libra  (as  or  pound). 

NOTE  1.  The  following  Greek  coins  and  weights  were  also  used  :  — 

6  oboli  =       1  drachma  (coin  or  weight). 

100  drachmae     =       1  mina. 
60  minae  =       1  talentum  (Attic). 

NOTE  2.  In  imperial  times  a  siliqua  (=  i  obolus)  was  also  used. 

665.  MEASURES. 

(1.)  MEASURES  OF  LENGTH. 

4    digit!  =  1  palmus  minor. 

3  palmi  minores  =  1  palmus  (maior). 

4  palmi  =  1  pes  (as)  (11.65  Eng.  inches). 
l£  pedes  =  1  cubitus. 

2£  pedes  =  1  gradus. 

2    gradus  =  1  passus. 

125   passus  =  1  stadium. 

8    stadia  =  1  mille  (passuum)  (Roman  mile). 


422  APPENDIX. 

NOTE  1.  The  unit  of  square  measure  is  the  iugerum  (as).  The  other 
square  measures  scarcely  require  treatment  in  a  grammar  at  all. 

NOTE  2.  These  measures  also  were  divided  into  the  regular  fractions  of 
the  as  as  the  equivalent  of  the  pes  or  iugerum. 

(2.)  DRY  MEASURE. 

1^  cyathi  =  1  acetabulum. 

4     acetabula  =  1  hemina. 

2     heminae  =  1  sextarius. 

16     sextarii  =  1  modius  (peck). 

(3.) 


2 
2 
2 
6 
4 
2 
20 

LIQUID 

cyathi 
acetabula 
quartarii 
heminae 
sextarii 
congii 
urnae 
amphorae 

MEASURE. 

=  1  acetabulum. 
=  1  quartarius. 
=  1  hemina. 
=  1  sextarius. 
=  1  congius. 
=  1  urna. 
=  1  amphora. 
=  1  culleus. 

ROMAN   NAMES. 

666.  A  free  Roman  had  usually  three  names.    Thus  :  — 
(1.)  The  PBAEXOMEX,  distinguishing  the  individual. 
(2.)     "    NOMEX  "  "     gens. 

(3.)     "    COGXOMEX  "  "    familia. 

a.  PBAEXOMIXA  all  end  in  -us,  except  Kaeso.  NOMINA  all 
end  in  -ius,  and  are  really  adjectives  (cf.  268).  COGXOMIXA 
have  various  endings,  and  are  derived  generally  from  some  per- 
sonal peculiarity  of  their  original  bearer  (cf.  our  nicknames). 
Thus:  — 

Decimus  Junius  Brutus.* 
Publius  Cornelius  Scipio.* 
Quintus  Mucius  Scaevola.* 

Sometimes  only  two  names  are  found  ;  as,  Gaius  Laelius. 
*  From  brutus,  heavy,  scipio,  a  staff,  scaevus,  the  left  (hand  or  side). 


ROMAN   NAMES.  —  ABBREVIATIONS. 


423 


b.  Further  c5gnomina  are  often  used  ;  thus,  especially,  cogno- 
mina  in  -ianus  indicate  adoption  FROM  a  certain  gens  ;  -anus 
(when  not  added  to  gentile  names)  and  -icus  indicate  military 
or  other  distinction.     Thus  :  — 

Publius  Cornelius  Scipio  Aemilianus,  Africanus  Minor.* 
NOTE.     The  adoptive  name  is  in  familiar  language  often  reduced  to  the 
gentile  form.     Thus,  Cicero  calls  Atticus  Pomponius  rather  than  Pompo- 
nidnus.     In  later  Latin  only,  a  second  cognomen  was  called  an  agnomen. 

c.  Daughters  were  usually  called  simply  by  their  father's  gen- 
tile name  ;  as,  Tullia  (Cicero's  daughter).     If  two  sisters  were 
to  he  distinguished,  maior  and  minor  were  added.     A  third  or 
fourth  daughter  was  known  as  tertia  or  quarta,  and  so  on. 

d.  The  Roman  praenomina  were  abbreviated  thus  :  — 


A.      =  Aulus. 
App.  =  Appius. 

C.  =  Gaius. 
Cn.     =  Gnaeus. 

D.  =  Decimus. 
K.      =  Kaeso. 


L.        =  Lucius.         Q.  =  Qulntus. 

M.       =  Marcus.        Ser.  =Servius. 

M'       =  Manilius.     Sex.  =  Sextus. 

Mam.  =  Mamercus.  Sp.  =  Spurius. 

N.       =  Numerius.    T.  =  Titus. 

P.        =  Publius.       Ti.  or  Tib.  =  Tiberius. 


667. 


ABBREVIATIONS. 


A.         =  absolvo,  antique, 
a.  d.      =  ante  diem. 
A.  u.  c.  =  anno     urbis     condi- 
tae. 

C.  =  condemno. 
cos.        =  consul. 
coss.      =  consules. 

D.  =  dlvus. 

d.  d.      =  dono  dedit. 

d.  d.  d.  =  dat,  dicat,  dedicat. 

des.       =  designatus. 

D.  M.   =  di  manes. 


Eq.  Rom.  =  eques  Romanus. 

F.  or  f .       =  f  ilius. 

Ictus.         =  iurisconsultus. 

Id.  =  Idus. 

imp.  =  imperator. 

I.  O.  M.    =  lovi  optumo  max- 

umo. 
K.  or  Kal.  (or  Cal.)  =  Kalen- 

dae. 

N.  or  n.  =  nepos. 
Non.       =  Nonae. 
P.  C.       =  patres  conscript!. 


*  The  younger  Africanus  was  adopted  by  P.  Cornelius  Scipio  (the  son 
of  Africanus  Major)  from  the  Aemilian  gens. 


424 


APPENDIX. 


pi.  =  plebis. 

pout.    max.  =  pontifex   maxi- 

mus. 

pop.    =•  populus. 
P.  R.  —  populus  Romanus. 
pr.      =  praetor, 
proc.  —  proconsul. 
Q.  B.  F.  F.  Q.  S.  —  quod  bonum 

f elix  faustumque  sit. 
Qtiir.  :r=  Quirites. 
resp.  =  res  publica. 
S.  =  salutem,  sacrum,  Senatus. 


S.  D.     =  salutem  dicit. 

S.  D.  P.  =  salutem  dicit   pluri- 

mam. 
S.  P.  Q.  R.  =  Senatus    popu- 

lusque  Romanus. 
S.  T.  E.  Q.  V.  B.  E.  =  si  tibl 

est  quod  vis  bene  est. 
S.  V.  B.  E.  E.  V.  =  si  vales 

bene  est,  eg5  valeo. 
Sc.  =  senatus  consultum. 

tr.  =  tribunus. 

U.  (u.  r.)  =  uti  rogas. 


668.      PRINCIPAL   LATIN   WRITERS. 

NOTE  1.  The  writers  from  the  time  of  Lucretius  to  the  time  of  Sueto- 
nius are  called  the  CLASSICAL  writers.  In  a  more  restricted  sense  this 
term  is  limited  to  the  period  beginning  with  Cicero  and  Caesar  and  ending 
with  Tacitus.  The  Classical  period  is  sometimes  divided  into  the  GOLDEN 
Age  and  the  SILVER  Age,  the  historian  Livy  counting  as  the  first  prose 
writer  of  the  latter  and  the  Augustan  poets  being  reckoned  in  the  f  ornier. 
Among  the  writers  later  than  Suetonius  a  BRAZEN  Age,  followed  by  an 
IRON  Age,  is  sometimes  further  distinguished.  The  writers  before  and 
after  the  Classical  period  are,  however,  now  generally  classed  simply  as 
Ante-classical  and  Post-classical  writers,  respectively. 

NOTE  2.  The  following  alphabetical  list  of  the  chief  Latin  writers  is 
subjoined  as  a  convenient  reference-list  for  the  pupil. 

Acc.  or  Att.      L.  Accius  or  Attius  (trag.)  170-94  B.  c. 

Amm.  Ammianus  Marcellmus  (hist.)  died  A.  D.  400. 

App.  L.  Appuleius  (philos.)  flour.  A.  D.  160. 

Aug.  Aurelius    Augustinus     (Chr. 

writ.)  died  A.  D.  430. 

Aur.  Viet.        Sextus  Aurelius  Victor  (hist.)  flour.  A.  D.  360. 

Aus.  D.  Magnus  Ausonius  (poet)  died  A.  D.  390. 

Boeth.  Anicius    Manlius   Torquatus 

Severmus  Boetius  or  Boe- 

thius  (philos.)  died  A.  D.  525. 

CaecU.  Statius  Caecilius  (corned.)  flour.  180  B.  c. 


PRINCIPAL    LATIN    WRITERS. 


425 


Caes. 
Cassiod. 

Cato 

Cat.  or 
Catull. 
Gels. 

Censor. 
Charis. 


Cic.  or  C. 

Claud. 
Col. 

Cornif. 

Curt. 

Donat.  or 

Don. 

Enn. 

Fest. 

Flor. 

Front. 

Frontin 

Fronto  or 

Front. 

Gai. 

Gell. 

Hier. 

Hirt. 


t.  or) 

tin.   ) 


Hor. 
lust. 


Gaius  lulius  Caesar  (hist.) 
Magnus    Aurelius    Cassiodo- 

rus  (hist.) 
M.   Porcius  Cato  (orat.  and 

hist.) 

C.  Valerius  Catullus  (poet) 

Aurelius      Cornelius     Celsus 

(physic.) 

Censdrmus  (gram.) 
Flavins    Sosipater   Charisius 

(gram.) 
M.  Tullius  Cicero   (orat.  and 

philos.) 

Claudius  Claudianus  (poet) 
L.    lunius    Moderatus   Colu- 

mella  (husbandry) 
Q.    Cornificius     (rhet.     "ad 

Herennium  ") 
Q.  Curtius  Rufus  (hist.) 

Allius  Donatus  (comment.) 

Q.  Ennius  (poet) 
Sex.  Pompeius  Festus  (gram.) 
L.  Annaeus  Floras  (hist.) 
S.  lulius   Frontmus   (engin., 
etc.) 

M.  Cornelius  Fronto  (orat.) 

Gaius  (lurisconsultus) 
Aulus  Gellius  (gram.,  etc.) 
Hieronymus  (Chr.  writ.) 
Aulus    Hirtius     (hist,    "8th 

book  of  Caes.,"  etc.) 
Q.  Horatius  Flaccus  (poet) 
lustmianus          (emperor, 

«  Code  ") 


100-44  B.  c. 
died  A.  D.  575. 

234-149  B.  c. 
87-54  B.  c. 

flour.  A.  D.  50. 
flour.  A.  D.  238. 

flour.  A.  D.  375. 

106-43  B.  c. 
flour.  A.  D.  400. 

flour.  A.  D.  50. 

flour.  80  B.  c.  ? 
flour.  A.  D.  50. 

flour.  A.  D.  350. 

239-169  B.  c. 
flour.  A.  D.  150  ? 
flour.  A.  D.  140. 

A.  D.  40-103. 
A.  D.  100-175. 

A.  D.  110-180. 
A.  D.  130-175. 
died  A.  D.  420. 

died  44  B.  c. 
65-8  B.  c. 

died  A.  D.  565. 


426 


APPENDIX. 


luv.  D.    lunius    luvenalis     (satir. 

poet)  A.  D.  60-140. 
Loot.                 it.  Caelius  Lactantius  Firmi- 

anus  (Chr.  writ.)  died  A.  D.  325. 

Liu.  Titus  Livius  (hist.)  59  B.  c.  -  A.  D.  17. 

Liu.  Andron.    Livius  Andromcus  (trag.)  284-204  B.  c. 

Luc.  M.  Annaeus  Lucanus  (poet)  A.  D.  39-65. 

Lucil.  C.    Ennius    Lucilius     (satir. 

poet)  died  103  B.  c. 
Liter.                 T.    Lucretius    Carus     (poet, 

philos.)  98-55  B.  c. 
Macr.                Aurelius  Theodosius  Macro- 

bius  (critic)  flour.  A.  D.  400. 

Mart.  M.  Valerius  Martialis  (poet)  A.  D.  40-102. 

Mart.  Cap.      Miirtianus      Minneus     Felix 

Capella  (satir.)  flour.  A.  D.  425  ? 

Mel.  or  Mela     Pompfmius  Mela  (geog.)  flour.  A.  D.  45. 

M'tn.  Fel.          Minucius  Felix  (Chr.  writ.)  flour.  A.  D.  200. 
Naev.                C.  Naevius  (dram,  and  epic 

poet)  235-199  B.  c. 

Nep.  Cornelius  Nepos  (biog.)  flour.  44  B.  c. 

Non.  Nonius  Marcellus  (gram.)  flour.  A.  D.  280  ? 

Ou.  P.  Ovidius  Naso  (poet)  43  B.  c.  -  A.  D.  17. 

uv    \         M*  P5cuvius  (traS-)  220-132  B.  c. 

Pers.  A.  Persius  Flaccus  (satir.)  A.  D.  34-62. 

Petr.  Petronius      Arbiter       (satir. 

romanc.)  flour.  A.  D.  60  ? 

Phaedr.  T.  Phaedrus  (fab.)  flour.  A.  D.  40. 

Plant.  T.  Maccius  Plautus  (corned.)  254-184  B.  c. 

Plin.  C.  Plinius  Secundus  [Maior] 

(nat.  hist.)  A.  D.  23-79. 
Plin.                 C.  Plinius  Caecilius  Secundus 

[Minor]  (letters)  A.  D.  62-113. 

Prise.  Priscianus  (gram.)  flour.  A.  D.  500. 

Prop.  Sextus  Propertius  (poet)  49-15  B.  c. 


PRINCIPAL   LATIN   WRITERS. 


427 


Prud.  Aurelius  Prudentius  Clemens 

(Chr.  writ.)  flour.  A.  D.  400. 

Quint.  M.  Fabius  Qumtilianus  (rhet.)  A.  D.  35-95. 

Sail.  C.  Sallustius  Crispus  (hist.)  87-34  B.  c. 

Sen.  [M.]  Annaeus  Seneca  (rhet.)  54  B.  c.  -  A.  D.  39. 

Sen.  L.    Annaeus    Seneca    (phil. 

and  trag.)  4  B.  c.  -  A.  D.  65. 

Serv.  Servius  Honoratus  (gram.)  flour.  A.  D.  390. 

Sid.  Apollinaris    Sidonius     (Chr. 

writ.)  died  A.  D.  488. 

Sil.  C.  Silius  Italicus  (poet)  A.  D.  25-101. 

Stat.  P.  Papinius  Statius  (poet)  A.  D.  45-96. 

Suet.  C.      Suetonius      Tranquillus 

(biog.)  A.  D.  75-160. 

Tac.  C.  Cornelius  Tacitus  (hist.)  A.  D.  55-119. 

Ter.  or  T.        P.  Terentius  Afer  (corned.)  185-159  B.  c. 

Ter.  Maur.      Terentianus  Maurus  (gram.)  flour.  A.  D.  290. 
Tert.                 Q.  Septimius  Florens  Tertul- 

lianus  (Chr.  writ.)  died  A.  D.  220. 

Tib.  Albius  Tibullus  (poet)  54-19  B.  c. 

Ulp.  Domitius  Ulpianus  (jur.)  died  A.  D.  228. 

Vol.  Fl.  C.  Valerius  Flaccus  (poet)  flour.  A.  D.  70. 

Vol.  Max.        Valerius     Maximus     (hist. 

anec.)  flour.  A.  D.  26. 
Vol.  Prob.        M.  Valerius  Probus  (gram.)  flour.  A.  D.  60  ? 
Varr.                 M.     Terentius    Varro     (hus- 
bandry, gram.,  etc.)  116-27  B.  c. 
Veil.                  P.  Velleius  Paterculus  (hist.)  flour.  A.  D.  30  ? 
Ver.  Flac.         Verrius  Flaccus  (gram.)  died  4  B.  c.  ? 
Verg.                 P.  Vergilius  Maro  (poet)  70-19  B.  c. 
Vitr.                 Vitruvius  Pollio  (arch.)  flour.  10  B.  c. 


INDEX. 


THE  references  in  the  following  Index  are  to  the  sections  and  sub-sections,  not  to 
pages.  N  stands  for  note,  F  for  foot-note,  ff.  after  a  number  indicates  that  the  subject 
extends  through  several  sections. 


A,  sound  of,  16;  noun  stems  in,  89, 
91  ff. ;  adjective  steins  in,  142  ff. ; 
verb  stems  in,  217  ff.  ;  Greek 
nouns  in,  of  1st  dec!.,  94 ;  Greek 
nouns  in,  of  3d  decl.,  125  (4); 
euphonic  changes  of,  58  ff. ;  quan- 
tity of,  46,  46  a  ( 1 ),  225,  241. 

A,  ab,  abs,  with  abl.,  427,  430; 
with  verbs  of  asking,  394  (2)  a; 
with  verbs  of  origin,  405  a;  to 
denote  agent,  406 ;  form  of,  in 
composition,  301  ( 1 ) ;  meanings 
of,  561  (1). 

Abbreviations,  667  ;  of  praenomina, 
666  d. 

Abest,  tantum  .  .  .  ut,  with  ut  or  quin, 
499  c. 

Ablative,  88  (6) ;  sing,  in  3d  dec!., 
114,  115  ;  sing,  in  adj.  of  3d  decl., 
148,  155  (2);  plur.  in  -abus,  93  e; 
plur.  in  -obus,  160 ;  plur.  in  -ubns, 
129 ;  old  form  of,  in  d,  90  F  ;  as 
adverb,  293, 557  c;  of  character  or 
qual.,  411 ;  with  prep.,  430,  431 ; 
with  comp.  verbs,  380  b  ;  with  opus 
and  usus,  417  ;  with  dirjmis,  etc., 
418;  with  utor,  etc.,  419;  with 
nltor,  etc.,  420  ;  with  <idsnesco,  etc., 
421 ;  of  source,  405  ;  of  material, 
405  c;  of  cause,  404;  of  means 
or  in st.,  407 ;  of  agent,  406 ;  of 
manner  or  accomp.,  410  ;  of  spe- 
cif., 412  ;  of  plenty,  409;  of  want, 
414 ;  with  /acid,  412  a ;  of  sepa- 
ration, 413;  of  price,  408;  of 
time,  424 ;  of  place,  425  ff . ;  with 
compar.,  416  ;  of  deg.  of  diff .,  415 ; 
absolute,  422 ;  with  de,  ex,  in,  in- 
stead of  part,  gen.,  358  (5) ;  of  the 


penalty,  367  b;  with  dono,  etc., 
379;  of  way  by  which,  407  c; 
with  palam,  431  g  ;  of  gerund  and 
gerundive,  551  c. 

Absque  with  abl.,  meanings  of,  561 
(2). 

Abstract  nouns,  75  i;  endings  of, 
272  ff. ;  used  collectively,  434; 
use  of  plur.  of,  437  (3) ;  neut.  adj. 
used  for,  439  (I),  (4);  formed 
from  nouns  and  adj.,  273;  formed 
from  verbs,  274. 

-alms,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  in,  93  e. 

A  cor  atque,  562  (3) ;  in  compar.,  562 
(3)  b,'  subjunctive  with  dc,  si, 
481  (2). 

Acatalectic  verse,  605  b. 

Accent,  30;  acute,  grave,  and  cir- 
cumflex, 30  a  F  2  ;  rules  of,  31  ff. ; 
further  back  than  antepenult  in 
early  Latin,  33  a;  of  gen.  and 
voc.  in  I  for  n  or  ie,  97  a. 

Accompaniment,  abl.  of,  410. 

Accusative,  88  (4)  ;  sing,  in  3d  decl., 
113;  neut.  used  as  adverb,  174  c, 
293,  557  b;  as  direct  object,  392 
ff . ;  with  miseret,  etc.,  364  (2); 
with  iuvo,  376  a;  with  verbs  com  p. 
with  trans,  394  (3);  with  verbs 
comp.  with  ante,  ad,  etc.,  377  (2) ; 
with  verbal  nouns  and  adj.,  399; 
of  specif.,  398;  with  prep.,  429, 
431 ;  of  time,  423  ;  of  place,  423, 
425  ff. ;  of  exclam.,  400;  as  subj. 
of  inh'n.,  401 ;  two  ace.,  394  ;  re- 
tained in  pass.,  394  (2)  c;  with 
propior,  etc.,  390  (4);  cognate, 
396;  adverbial,  397;  with  mid- 
dle voice,  395 ;  of  the  anticipated 


430 


INDEX. 


subject,  393  6;  of  gerund  and 
gerundive,  551  6,  552  (2). 

Accusing  and  acquitting,  verbs  of, 
constr.,  367. 

-dceus,  adj.  ending,  268. 

Acquiesco,  constr.  with,  421  a. 

Ad,  constr.  of  verbs,  comp.  with, 
377;  meaning  "nearly,"  559  (1) 
F  ;  form  in  comp.,  301  (2)  ; 
with  ace.,  429 ;  meanings  of,  559 

0). 
-ades,  patronymic  ending,  277,  278 

Ademo,  constr.  with,  380. 

Adhuc  locorum,  355  (5)  a. 

Adjectives,  74(2),  141;  classes  of, 
142  ;  1st  and  2d  decl.,  143  ff. ;  3d 
decl.,  149  ff. ;  three  endings,  150, 
151 ;  two  endings,  152,  153  ;  o'ne 
ending,  154 ;  abl.  sing,  in  3d  decl., 
155  (2)  ;  -um  in  gen.  plur.  of,  155 
(3) ;  redundant,  155  (7) ;  adj.  pro- 
nouns, 179  N  ;  position  of,  587  ; 
numeral,  156  ff. ;  multiplicative, 
286  (1);  proportional,  286  (2); 
temporal,  286  (3)  ;  defective,  155 
(5),  (6)  ;  comparison  of,  163  ff. ; 
irreg.  compar.,  166  ff.  ;  defective 
compar.,  170  ff.  ;  derivation  of, 
254  ff. ;  compound,  295  ff. ;  verbal, 
252  a ;  agreement  of,  332  ff. ;  with 
nouns  of  diff .  gender,  336  ff . ;  not 
agreeing  with  proper  names,  441  ; 
peculiarities  in  use  of,  438  ff.  ; 
without  a  noun,  438,  439  :  neut. 
as  adverb,  174  c,  293,  557  b,  c  ; 
adj.  used  where  English  prefers 
noun  with  prep.,  44O ;  gender 
with  part,  gen.,  341  b;  used  with 
gen.  case,  359  ff . ;  with  dat.,  388 
ff. ;  with  infin.,  536  (2) ;  for  ad- 
verb, 557  h ;  position  of,  with 
regard  to  their  nouns,  586. 

Admonishing,  verbs  of,  366,  367  c. 

Admorntii,  137  (4)  a. 

Adonic  verse,  644,  646  (1). 

Adsnescdy  adsuefacio,  constr.  with, 
421. 

Adventii,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 

Adverbs,  74  (5);  correl.,  187;  of 
manner,  557  a,  d;  of  amount, 
557  6;  of  degree,  557  c,  d;  nu-. 
meral,  157  (4),  158  ff. ;  deriva- 
tion of,  292,  293 ;  comparison  of, 


174  ff. ;  qualifying  particip.  used 

as    nouns,    438    a ;    rosirion    of, 

588. 

Adversative  conjunctions,  566  ff. 
Adversns,  with  ace.,  429 ;  meanings 

of,  559  (2). 
I  Ae,  diphthong,  7 ;  how  pronounced, 

17 ;  weakened  in  late  Latin  to  e, 

176;  euphonic  change  of,  60 ;  in 

reduplication,  231  (3)  d. 
Aegyptum,  as  ace.  of  motion  toward, 

426  e. 

Aequo,  after  comparatives,  416  6. 
-aeus,  adj.  ending,  268  a. 
Agency,  nouns  of,  270. 
Agent,  abl.  of,  4O6 ;  dat.  of,  383. 
Ages  of  Latin  literature,  668  N  1. 
Agnomen,  666  6  N. 
Agreement,   of  verb,    316   ff.  ;    of 

appos.  and  pred.  nouns,  324  ff. ;  of 

adj.,  332  ff. ;  of  rel.  pron.,  342  ff. 
Ai,  old   diphthong,   7  a;    old  gen. 

and  dat.  ending,  93  a. 
01,   how   represented  in  Latin,    38 

d*. 
Aid,  conjugation  of,  249  (4) ;  use  of, 

516   b;   aibam,   etc.,  as  dissylla., 

249  (4)  a. 

-a/,  nouns  in,  47  a,  103,  262  a. 
I  Alcaic  verse,  647. 

Alcmanian  strophe,  616. 
I  Alibi,  alicubi,  308. 
Aliemts,   use   of,  for  gen.   of  alias, 

147  (2). 
Aliquis,  declined,  184;  difference  in 

subs,  and  adj.  forms  of,  184  b; 

use  of,  457.    . 
-dlis,  adj.  ending,  262. 
Aliter,  174  F. 
Alins,  declined,  146;   use  of,  460; 

followed  by  ablative,  416  d ;  alii, 

aliis,  for  reciprocal  relation,  449 

(2). 
Alphabet,  3  ff. ;  divided  into  vowels 

and  consonants,  4. 
Alter,  declension  of,  145, 146 ;  use  of, 

460  ;  alter .  .  .  alter,  598 a;  instead 

otsecttndus,  161  d ;  genitive  alterlus 

used  for  allus,  147  (2). 
Akeruter,  146  a,  460  c. 
Amb,  form  in  comp.,  302  (1). 
Ambo,  declension  of,  16O  b ;  distin- 
guished from  uterrjtte,  46O  a. 
A  mo,  conjugated,  222,  223. 


INDEX. 


431 


Amplius,  with  or  without  quam,  416 

c. 
An,  use  of,  578,  580;  hand  scio  an, 

etc.,  579  a. 

Anacreontic  verse,  629. 
Anacrusis,  618  (4). 
Analogy  in  word-formation,  257  N. 
Anapaestic  verse,  630. 
Anaphora,  598  (1),  659  (4). 
Animl,  locative  use  of,  426  b. 
Anne,  use  of,  580  6. 
Ami  on,  use  of,  581. 
Ante,  with  ace.,  429  ;  constr.  of  verls 
comp.  with,  377  ;  with  quam,  505  ; 
with  ace.  or  abl.  in  expressions  of 
time,  559  (3)  1st  p  ;  form  iu  comp., 
301   (3);    meanings  of,  559  (3); 
ante  diem,  etc.,  424  c,  e,f. 
Antecedent,  342.     . 
Antepenult,  25  N  (1)  ;  quantity  of 

certain  antepenults,  52. 
Antequam,  moods  with,  505. 
-anus,  adj.  ending,  265. 
Aorist  tense,  462  (1)6. 
Apocope,  63  ii.,  659  (6). 
Apodosis,  N  before  476. 
Appellative  nouns,  76  ii. 
Appetens,  etc.,  constr.  with,  361. 
Apposition,   324  ff.  ;    genitive   in- 
stead  of,   326;    with    names    of 
towns,  426  g,  h ;  with  noinen,  326 
a;   partitive,   325   c;    correspon- 
dence in  gender  and  number  with 
limited  noun,  329. 
Aptus,  ad,  39O  (1). 
Apud,  with  ace.,  429  ;  meanings  of, 

559  (4). 

Arbitrdtu,  137  (4)  a. 
Archilochian  verse,  617,  654. 
Aristophanic  verse,  646  (2). 
-arts,  adj.  ending,  262. 
-drum,  noun  ending,  276  (4) ;  -drifts, 

adj.  ending,  269. 
Arrangement  of  words,  584  ff. 
Arsis  and  thesis,  607. 
-as,  genitives  in,  93  c ;  nouns  of  3d 
decl.  in,  109;  Gentile  ending,  279. 
-as  in  ace.  plur.  of  Greek  nonns,  124 ; 
gentile    adj.    ending,    279;    final 
quantity  of,  50. 
.4s,  unit  of  value,  662  (1),  (2) ;  assis, 

as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 
Asclepiadean  verse,  645. 
Asking,  etc.,  verbs  of,  with  two  ace., 


394  (2) ;  constr.  in  passive,  394 

(2)  c;  subjunc.  with,  486,  491. 
Aspergo,  constr.  with,  379. 
Aspirates,  11  iii. ;  sounds  of,  18  g. 
-dsso,  etc.,  as  future  perf.  and  future 

endings,  228  d,  e. 

Assimilation,  65  ff . ;  partial,  66,  67. 
Ast,  566  (2)  F. 
Asyndeton,  564,  564  c. 
-dt(i),  stem  ending  of  nouns,  109  a  ; 

of  adj.,  279. 

At,  conjunction,  566  (2). 
-atim,  adverbs  in,  292  (2). 
Atque,  use  of,  562  (3) ;  in  compar., 

562  (3)  b. 

Atqm,  use  of,  569  (1). 
Attraction,  with  relative,  342  d,  e; 

subjunc.  of,  523. 
Attributives,  333. 
-dtits,  adj.  ending,  280. 
Au,  diphthong,  7;  how  pronounced, 

17  ;  euphonic  change  of,  60. 
Audco,  semi-deponent,  196. 
Audio,  conjugated,  222,223;  dicto 

audiens  with  dat.,  391  (4). 
Ausim,  228  d. 
Aut,  use  of,  565. 
Autem,  use   of,   568 ;    postpositive, 

590  a. 

-dv-,  perf.  stem  ending,  218  b. 
-dx,  adj.  ending,  267. 

D,  final  or  before  s,  like  p,  18  f. ; 

euphonic  changes  of,  66  i.,  vi. 
Bacchiac  verse,  631. 
Balineum,  38  d;  pi.,  135  (4). 
Barbiton,  declined,  98. 
Belli,  locative  use  of,  426  (2)  a;  bello, 

as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 
-ber,  end  of  names  of  months,  151 ; 

of  other  adjectives,  284. 
-bilis,  adj.  ending,  261. 
Black  days,  000(6)  N  1. 
Bonus,  declined,  143. 
Bos,  declined,  110. 
-bri-,  stern  endings,  108  b. 
Brachycatalectic  verse,  605  6. 
-brum,  noun  ending,  258. 
Bucolic  diaeresis',  608  a.  614  N. 
-bulum,  noun  ending,  258. 
-bundus,  adj.  in,  281 ;  with  ace.,  399. 

C,  sound  of,  18;   originally  repre- 
senting sound  of  our  G,  3  d ;  as 


432 


INDEX. 


abbreviation  for  Gdius,  3d;  eu- 
phonic changes  of,  66  iii.,  vii.,  69 
ii-  (I),  71(1). 

Caelum,p\nr.  of,  135  (3). 

Caesura,  608  ( 1 )  ;  niasc.  and  fern., 
608  b ;  iu  hexameter,  608  «,  614 
x ;  iu  iambic  verse,  624  ff. ;  in 
trochaic  verse,  619  b :  iu  Sapphic 
verse,  646  x  ;  principal,  608  (2) ; 
penthemimeral,  608  6. 

Calendar,  661. 

Calends,  660  (4). 

Capio,  conjugated,  222,  223. 

Capital  letters,  3  a;  as  numerals, 
162. 

Caput,  declined,  104  ;  capitis  and 
capitalis  poenae,  as  gen.  of  penalty, 
367  a  ;  capite  without  prep.,  426  d. 

Carbasus,  plur.  of,  135  (2). 

Cardinal  numbers,  157  (1). 

Card,  111  (2). 

Case-endings,  table  of,  9O;  in  1st 
decl.,  93 ;  in  2d  decl.,  97 ;  in  3d 
decl.,  112  ff. ;  in  4th  decl.,  128; 
in  5th  decl ,  133  ;  in  adjectives, 
147,  155  ;  iu  pronouns,  179,  180, 
182,  184  ff. 

Case(s),  87,  88. 

Catalectic  verse,  605  b. 

Catullus,  metres  of,  645  ff. 

Causa,  gratia,  etc.,  with  gen.,  404 
(3)6. 

Causal  conjunctions,  moods  with, 
519  ff. ;  clauses,  position  of,  596 
(2). 

Cause,  abl.  of,  404. 

Cavere,  with  dat.  or  ace.  in  diff., 
senses,  378. 

Cave,  use  of,  493  a,  529  d. 

•ce,  enclitic,  35. a;  attached  to  de- 
monstr.  pron.,  180  c. 

Cedo,  imperative,  249  (10)  c. 

Celer,  declension  of,  151. 

Celo,  constr.  with.  394  (2). 

Centena  mil/a,  663  N  3. 

-cer,  -cm,  adjective  endings,  284. 

Certe,  use  of,  572. 

Ceterum,  as  conj.,  568  b. 

-ceus,  adjective  ending,  268. 

Ch,  11  iii. ;  sound  of,  18  g. 

Characteristic,  gen.  of,  356;  abl. 
of,  411 ;  clauses  of,  5OO  (2) ;  vowel, 
in  nouns  and  adj.,  89  a ;  in  verbs, 
217  F. 


Chiasmus,  598  (2),  659  (10). 
;  Choliambic  verse,  628. 
|  Choriambic  verse,  632. 

L'irattr,  with  ace.,  429 ;  as  adverb, 
559  (6)  F  2:  meanings  of,  559 
(6). 

Circum  (circa),  with  ace.,  429 ;  mean- 
ings of,  559  (5). 

Circumdo,  coiistr.  with,  379. 

Cis,  citrd,  with  ace.,  429 ;  meanings 
of,  559  (7). 

Citerior,  compared,  170  (1). 

Cities,  gender  of  names  of,  81  ii. 

-cius,  adjective  ending,  268. 

Clam,  coiistr.  with,  431  g. 

Clauses,  312  ff. ;  as  subject,  318  a, 
484,  531,  540,  541;  with  parti- 
ciple in  abl.  absol.,  422  b;  de- 
pendent in  form  but  independent 
in  force,  quoted,  516  d. 

Close  syllables,  25  W"  3  ;  vowels,  5 
F  2. 

Coepl,  conjugated,  249  (3). 

Cognate  ace.,  396. 

Coy  no  men,  666  (3). 

Collective  nouns,  76  iii. ;  abstracts 
used  for,  434  (cf.  435) ;  agreement 
with.  346  (1),  347  (1),  348  (1). 

Com,  form  in  compounds,  301  (4). 

Commanding,  verbs  of,  cases  with, 
376;  mood  with,  487,  489  (4), 
490,  491. 

Commands,  expressed  by  imperat., 
527,  528;  by  subj.,  472,  529  a,  6, 
(2) ;  in  other  ways,  527  d,  e,  529 
c,  d,  e. 

Comitils,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 

Common,  nouns,  76  ii. ;  gender,  83  ; 
quantity,  26,  27,  29. 

Comparative,  conj.,  mood  with, 
481 ;  tenses  of  snbjunc.  with,  481 " 
a,  526  a  (2)  ;  degree,  164  (2) ;  uses 
of,  164  a  ;  formation  of,  165  ff. ; 
wanting,  171 ;  comparatives  deol'., 
152  ;  comparative  clauses  with 
quam,  quoted,  516  e. 

Comparison,  74  (8)  N  ;  of  adj.,  163 
ff.;  irreg.,  166  ff . ;  defective,  17O 
ff. ;  with  maqis  and  mdxime,  173  ; 
of  adverbs,  174  ff. 

Complementary  infin.,  532. 

Completed  action,  tenses  of,  462  ; 
syntax  of,  in  snbj.  in  indepeud. 
clauses,  472  c,  473  a,  474  a,  475 


INDEX. 


433 


a;  conditional  clauses,  etc.,  476 
(2)  b;  clauses  of  purpose,  482  (3) 
b ;  of  result,  483  (3)  c ;  temporal 
clauses,  470  (2),  511  a. 

Complex  sentence,  314  a. 

Compound,  words,  251,  294  ff. ; 
nouns  and  adj ,  295  ff. ;  verbs, 
298;  quasi -compounds,  300  a,  b; 
compound  sentences,  311  (2)  ; 
quantity  of  compounds,  53,  304 
ff. 

Concession,  hortatory  subj.  denot- 
ing, 472  (4). 

Conative  u^e  of  pres.  tense  (at- 
tempted action),  464. 

Concessive  particles,  moods  with, 
478  ff . ;  use  of  tenses  with,  524  a 
(3),  526  a  (2). 

Concrete  nouns,  75  ii.,  76;  used 
for  abstracts,  432,  433. 

Condemning,  verbs  of,  constr.  with, 
367. 

Conditional  particles,  moods  with, 

476  ff. 

Conditions,  simple,  476 ;  contrary 
to  fact,  476  a,  477  a,  c;  general, 

477  d;  in  indir.  'discourse,  517; 
mixed  forms,  477  e,f. 

Confido,  semi-deponent,  196;  with 

a'bl.,  420  ;  with  dat.,  420  a. 
Confit,  246  a,  249  (10)  d. 
Conjugation,  74  (8)  N,  208  ff . ;  regu- 

Inr,  217  ff. ;  periphrastic,  229  ;  ir- 

,reg.,  239  ff. ;   defective,  249  ;    of 

sum,  215;  possum,  216. 
Conjunctions,  74  (7),  562  ff. ;  copu- 
lative, 562  ff. ;  disjunctive,  565; 

adversative,  566  ff . ;  illative,  570 ; 

words  for  "  for,"  571  ;  position  of, 

590. 
Connectives,  relatives  used  as,  451 ; 

guidemt  etc.,  572. 
Consecutive  clauses,  with  particles, 

483  (1),  (3);  with  relatives,  483 

(2)  ;     substantive     clauses,    484, 

493  ff. 
Consonants,  4  ii.,  9  ff. ;  sounds  of, 

18  ;  euphonic  changes  of,  65  ff . 
Consonant  stems  of  nouns,  100  ff. ; 

of  adj.,  152  ff. ;  of  verbs,  217  a. 
Constdre,  with  ablative  of  material, 

405  c. 
Constat,  impersonal,   250  c;   mood 

with,  318  (4)  a,  531  a. 


Constructio  ad  sensum,  345  ff. 
Consuesco,  constr.  with,  421. 
Consutere,  with  dat.  and  ace.  in  diff. 

senses,  378. 

Contentus,  with  abl.,  418. 
Continued  action,  tense  of,  461. 
Centra,  with  ace.,  429;  meanings  of, 

559  (8). 
Contracted   syllables,    quantity  of, 

40,  42  a. 
Contraction,   61  ;    in   tenses   from 

perf.  stem,  228  a. 
Copulative  conj.,  562  ff. 
t'oram,  with  abl.,  430 ;  meanings  of, 

561  (3). 

Correlatives,  table  of,  187. 
Credibill,  after  comparatives,  416  6. 
Credo,  241  b,  c. 
Cretic  verse,  631. 
Crime,  gen.  of  the,  367. 
-crum,  noun  ending,  258. 
Cu  for  earlier  quo,  59  c,  185  d  N  ; 

186  (2)  a  F. 
Cuids,  declined,  188  a. 
Cuius,  declined,  186  (2). 
-culum,  noun  ending,  258. 
-cuhis,  -a,  -urn,  diminutive  endings, 

259  (4). 
Cum,  prep,  with  abl.,  430;  with  abl. 

of  accomp.,  410  (1) ;  meanings  of, 

561  (4) ;   appended  to  pronouns, 

431  e. 

Cum,  moods  with,  509  ff. 
Cum  .  .  .  turn,  513,  563  (2). 
-cundus,  adj.  ending,  281. 
Curd  ut,  with  subj.,  527  d. 
-cus,  adj.  ending,  266,  279. 
Customary    action,    expressed    by 

pres.  and  imperf.,  464. 
Cyclic  dactyl,  643  a. 

/),final  like  t,  18  f .;  euphonic  changes 
of,  66  iv.,  69  ii.  (2),  iii.,  71. 

Dactylic  verse,  614  ff. 

Dates,  424  c,  d,  e,J,  660. 

Dative,  88  (3);  in  -dbus,  93  e;  in 
-obus,  160;  in  -ubus,  129;  in  -e, 
133  (1),  217  b  F  2  ;  used  for  pre- 
dicate noun,  331  (1) ;  of  advan- 
tage, 381 ;  of  service,  385 ;  with 
adj.,  388  ff. ;  indirect  obj,374; 
with  comp.  of  ante,  ad,  etc.,  377 
(1);  with  comp.  with  ab,  de,  etc., 
380;  with  nouns,  391  (2);  with 


434 


INDEX. 


adverbs,  391  (1);  of  agent,  383; 
of  possessor,  384;  two  datives, 
386;  ethical,  382:  with  verbs 
meaning  ''please,  displease,"  etc., 
376 ;  of  gerund  and  gerundive, 
551  a;  dat.  aud  ace.  with  certain 
verbs  have  diff.  meanings,  378. 
Days  of  the  week,  names  of,  660  (6) 

N2. 

De,  with  abl.,  430;  with  verbs  of 
accusing,  asking,  etc.,  367  a;  in- 
stead of  part,  gen.,  358  (5)  ;  mean- 
ings of,  561  (5). 

Dea,  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  of,  93  e. 

Debeo,  imper.  indie,  for  sub]'.,  474  d. 
477  c. 

Decet,  impers.,  250  a. 

Declarative  sentences,  315  (1). 

Declension,  74  (8)  x  ;  of  nouns,  89 
ff. ;  1st  decl.,  91  ff.;  2d  decl.,  95 
ff.;  3d  decl.,  99  ff. ;  4th  decl., 
126  ff.;  5th  decl.,  132,  133;  of 
adj.,  141  ff.;  1st  and  2d  decl., 
143  ff. ;  3d  decl.,  148  ff. ;  of  alius, 
etc.,  145  ff. ;  of  pers.  pron.,  178  ff. ; 
of  reflex,  pron  ,  179  ;  of  possess. 
pron.,  186 ;  of  demonstr.  pron., 
180  ff . ;  of  rel.  and  interrog.  pron., 
183  ft. ;  of  pat-rials,  1S8  a :  end- 
ings of,  90. 

Dedi,  231  d  (1). 

Defective,  nouns,  134  (3) ;  137  ff. ; 
adj.,  155  (5),  (6)  ;  verbs,  249. 

De/it,  249  ( 1 0)  d. 

Degrees  of  comparison,  163  (2); 
inferior  degrees,  164  d ;  expres- 
sions for  a  high  degree  and  the 
highest  decree,  164  b,  c. 

Dein,  dtincrjts,  deinde,  pronuncia- 
tion, 35  b. 

De/os,  declined,  98. 

Demonstrative  pronouns,  177  (2); 
declension  of,  180 ;  distinctions  in 
their  use,  181,  450  ;  used  for  the 
third  personal  pronoun,  447 ; 
other  uses,  450;  "that  of" 
omitted,  450  (3)  6. 

Denarius,  663  N  1. 

Denominative(s),  252  a;  verbs, 
287  ff. 

Dentals,  12  ii. 

Dependent  clauses,  314  (2). 

Deponent  verbs,  195 ;  conjugation 
of,  223  (last  paradigm) ;  use  of 


participles  of,  206  a,  544  a,  b  ;  list 
of  in  3d  conjugation,  236. 
Depriving,  verbs  of,  with  abl.,  413, 

414  ;  with  dat.,  380. 
Derivation  of  word<,  251  ff. ;  simple 
words,  254  ff. ;  nouns  and  adjec., 
254-286 ;    verbs,   287-291  ;    ad- 
verbs, 292,  293. 
Derivative  words,  252. 

.<,   not    found    in    nom.    sing 
155  (6). 

;  Desiderative  verbs,  290. 
I  Determinative  compounds,  295  b. 
Determining,  etc.,  verbs  of,  constr. 

with,  486,  489,  491,  533  (2). 
Deterior,  com  par.,  170  (1). 
Deterred,  moods  with,  493  (2)  6. 
Dens,  declined,  97  (6). 
Diaeresis,  8,  608  (1),  609  (3);  bu- 
colic, 608  a,  614  N. 
Dial  >j sis,  609  (3). 
Diastole,  609  (4). 
J>n\  imper.,  227  e. 
I  Id.  with  ace.  and  infin.,  533  (1)  ; 
with  vt,  490  (2)  ;  introducing  both 
direct     and     indirect     discourse, 
516  b. 

Dido,   as    abl.    after   comparatives, 

416  b  ;  aud i ens,  with  dat.,  391  (4). 

Dlcunl  =  they   say,  317  (2);   dicor, 

with  infin.  and  pred.  nom.,  534. 
-diciis,  adj.  in,  compared,  168  (2). 
Dido,  declined,  124. 
Dies,  declined,  132. 
Difference,  degree  of,  abl.  of,  415. 
Difficilis,  compar.,  167. 
Dljinis,  with  abl.,  418;  with  gen., 
418 a;  with  relative  and  subjunc., 
555  c,  cf.  5OO  (2) ;  with  supine  in 
-it,  555  b  ;  with  infin.,  536  a. 
Dimeter,  604  ;  trochaic,  622  ;  iam- 
bic, 629;  anapaestic,  630  (3),  (4). 
Diminutive,  nouns  and  adj.,  259  ff. ; 

verbs,  291. 

Diphthongs,  6,  7  ;  sounds  of,  17 ; 
quantity  of,  39;  euphonic  changes 
of,  60 ;    Latin   representatives  of 
Greek,  38  d  y. 
Dipody,  605  (1). 
Dis,  form  in  comp.,  302  (2). 
Discessu,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 
Di 'sert us,  302  (2). 

Disjunctive  conj.,  565  ;   questions, 
580,  581. 


INDEX. 


435 


Dissimilis,  compar.,  167. 

Distance,  cases  expressed  by,  423  b, 

Distich,  605  a. 

Distributive  numerals,  157  (3) ; 
used  for  cardinals,  161. 

Diu,  compared,  176. 

Do,  conjugated,  241 ;  not  properly 
of  1st  conj.,  233  F  2. 

-do,  noun  ending,  272,  273  (3). 

Doceo,  coustr.  with,  394  (2)6,  407  6; 
passive  conjugated,  223. 

Domimts,  declined,  95. 

Damns,  declined,  130 ;  donri,  loca- 
tive, 130  a,  426  a. 

Donee,  moods  with,  502  ff. 

Dono,  cases  with,  379. 

Double  consonants,  9  iii.,  3  e,  10  a, 
12  a;  questions,  580,  581. 

Doubled  consonants  not  making 
position  in  Plautus,  641. 

Doubtful  gender,  83  N. 

Dual  number,  86  a. 

Dubitative  subjunctive,  475  ;  in  in- 
direct questions,  475  N. 

Dubito,  with  qulii,  499  a  ;  with  infin., 
499  b  ;  dubild  an,  579  a. 

Due,  imper.,  227  e. 

Duim,  duls,  etc.,  241  c. 

Dam,  moods  with,  502  ff. ;  in  clauses 
of  proviso,  504 ;  nZdum,  482  d. 

Dummodo,  in  clauses  of  proviso, 
504. 

Duo,  declined,  160 ;  duum  for  duo- 
rum,  160  a. 

-dus,  adj.  ending,  283  ;  -ndus,  gerun- 
dive ending,  214. 

E,  sound  of,  16  ;  elided  in  est,  18  h  ; 
euphonic  changes  of,  59,  63  ;  af- 
finity for  r,  59  a  ;  representing  et, 
38  d ;  old  dative  in,  133  (1),  217 
F  2,  b  F.  1  ;  uom.  and  ace.  plur. 
of  Greek  nouns  in,  98  c;  adverbs 
in,  174,  557  a  ;  e  as  prep.,  430 ; 
quantity  of,  46,  225  ;  parasitic,  64. 

Early  versification,  peculiarities  of, 
635  ff. 

Ecce,  compounded  with  demoustr. 
pron.,  180  b. 

Ecquis,  declension  of,  185  6. 

Ectlipsis,  609  ( 1 )  c. 

Edim,  edls,  etc.,  247. 

Edo,  conjugated,  247. 

Effieri,  249  (10)  d. 


Egeo,  indiged,  cases  with,  414,  414  a. 

Ego,  declined,  178. 

Eiy  diphthong,  7  ;  how  pronounced, 

17 ;  quantity  of  the  e  in  5th  decl., 

133  (3). 
et,  how  represented  in  Latin,  38  d, 

38  N. 

-els,   ending    of    fern,   patronymics, 
_  277,  278  (2). 
Eiusmodi,  etc.,  ISO/. 
•ela,  abstract  ending,  274  (1). 
Elegiac  verse,  615. 
-elis,  adjec.  ending,  262. 
Elision,  69,  609  (1). 
-ellus,  -a,   -urn,  diminutive    endings, 

259  (3). 

-em,  ace.  ending  in  3d  decl.,  90  F. 
Emphasis,  as  influenced  by  order  of 

words  in  the  sentence,  584,  585, 
_  593  ;  repeated,  599  d  N  2. 
En,  interject.,  583. 
Enclitics,  35 ;    quantity    of   enclit. 

particles,  45  a,  46  F  ;  uses  of  the 

latter  annexed  to  pronouns,  179  6, 

180  c,    186  b;  qne,  562   (2);    ve, 

565  b  ;  ne,  574,  575  b. 
Enim,    use    of,    571 ;    position    of, 

590  a. 

-ensis,  adj.  ending,  279. 
-entissimiis,  superl.  in,  168. 
-enus,  adj.  ending,  265. 
Ed,  conjugated,  248. 
Ed,  etc.,  pronouns  as  adverbs,  187 ; 

with  part,  gen.,  355  (3). 
-eos,  gen.  ending  of   Greek   nouns, 

98. 

Epicene  nouns,  84. 
Epistolary  use  of  tenses,  470  (1). 
Epulum,  plur.  of,  135  (4). 
Eques,  etc.,  used  collectively,  346  a, 

435. 

Equidem,  308  ;  use  of,  572  a. 
-er,  nouns  in,  of  2d  decl.,  95,  97  (1), 

(2)  ;  of  3d  decl.,  103   (especially 

103  e),  106  e,  108  b;  adj.   in,  of 

2d  decl.,  143,  144,  cf.  145 ;  of  3d 

decl.,   150,    151 ;    superlative  of 

adj.   in,    166 ;    passive   infin.   in, 

214  F. 
En/fi,   with   ace.,    429 ;    chiefly    of 

persons,     429  b;     meanings     of, 

559  (9). 
-ere,  ending  of  perf.  indie.,  213  (2), 

222. 


436 


INDEX. 


Ergo,    use    of,    570;     with     gen., 

404  (3)  b. 

-es,  quantity  of,  final,  50,  50  (2). 
-es,  -itis,  noun  ending,  101  c ;  quan- 
tity of,  50  (2). 

-es,  ending  of  Greek  noons,  94. 
Esctt,  215  c. 
Esse,    conjugated,     215 ;     omitted, 

537;  with  pred.  gen.,  357;  with 

d;it.  of  possessor,  384. 
-esso   (-isso),  intensive  verb   ending, 

288  (4). 
Et,   use  of,    562   (1);   et  ipse,  etc., 

573  a  ;  connecting  last  two  terras 

of  a  series,  564  b  ;  et  .  .  .  et,  563  ; 

negue  .  .  .  et,  565  d. 
Et.  non,  571  a. 
Etenim,  571. 
Etiam,  573. 

Etsl,  eliam  si,  moods  with,  478. 
-etum,  noun  ending,  276  (1). 
Eu,  diphthong,  7  ;  sound  of,  17  ;  in 

voc.  sing,  of  Greek  nouns,  98. 
Euphonic    change,   N    before    58  ; 

vowels,  58  ff . ;  consonants,  65  ff. ; 

arrangement  of  words,  599  a. 
-eus,    -ens,    adjective   endings,   268, 

268  a. 

•€>--,   perf.  stem  ending,  218  (I)  b. 
Ex  (e),  with  abl.,  430;  instead  of 

part,    gen.,   358   (5) ;    meanings, 

561  (6)  ;  form  in  comp.,  301  (5). 
Exchanging,  verbs  of,  cases  with, 

4086. 
Exclamations,  ace.  in,  400 ;  nom. 

in,  349;  infin.  in,  535. 
Exclamatory  sentences,  315  (3). 
Existence  and  non-existence,  mood 

with  expressions  of,  501  a. 
Exler,  155  (6) 
Expecting,  verbs   of,  future    infin. 

with,  533  (5). 

Extpediiione,  as  abl.  after  compara- 
tives, 416  b. 

Exterior,  compared,  170  (2). 
Extra,  with  ace.,  429;  meanings  of, 

559  (10). 

Far,  imper.,  227  e;  fac  tit  with  sub- 
junc.,  527  d ;  fac  ne,  529  e. 

Facilis,  compar.,  167  ;  facile,  as  ad- 
verb, 174  c. 

Facio,  compounds  of,  246  a,  298  6, 
fid,  as  passive  of,  246. 


Fame,  abl.  of  fames,  hunger,  115. 
Familias,  with  pater,  etc.,  93  c. 
Fan,  conjugated,  249  (6). 
Fas,  indeclinable,  137  (1) ;  with  su- 
pine in  -u,  555. 
Fasti  dies,  660  (6). 
Favor,  etc.,  verbs  meaning  to,  with 

dat.,  376. 

;  Faxo,  faxim,  faxem,  228  d. 
Fearing,  verbs  of,  with  ut,  ne,  etc., 

492  ;  with  infin.,  492  b. 
Feeling,  verbs  of,  mood  with,  533 

(4). 
Feet,  in  poetry,  6OO ;  different  kinds 

of,  602. 

Felix,  declined,  154. 
Fer,  imper.,  227  e. 
Fero,  conjugated,  245. 
Festi  dies,  66O  (6). 
Festivals,  plural  names  of,  139  (1) ; 

list  of  important,  660  (6)  N  1. 
-Jicus,  adj.  in,  compared,  168  (1). 
Fide,  as  abl.  after  comparatives, 

4166. 
Fido,  semi-deponent,  196 ;  with  abl., 

420  ;  with  dat.,  420  a. 
Figures  of  versification,  6O9  ff. 
Fl/la,  dat.  and  abl.  plural,  93  e. 
Filius,  voc.  sing.,  97  (5). 
Filling,   verbs    of,   with  abl.,  409 ; 

with  gen.,  409  a. 
Final,  clauses  with  ut,  etc.,  482  (1) ; 

with  qm,  etc.,  482  (2)  ;  with  quo, 

482    (3)  ;    substantive,    484    ff. ; 

syllables,  quantity  of,  46  ff. 
Finite  verb,  202  (l"). 
/  id,  conjugated,  246. 
First,  decl.  of  nouns,  91  ff. ;  of  adj., 

143  ff. ;  coujug.,  218  ff.  (especially 

222,  223). 

Flocci,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 
Forem,  fore,  etc.,  215,  215  c ;  fore 

ut,  517  (2),  5386. 
Forts,  426  (2)  a. 
Fors,  forte,  137  (4). 
Forsitan,  fortasse,  use  of,  579  6. 
Fractional  expressions,  161  k. 
Freeing,   verbs   of,  with  abl.,  413 

(1). 

Frcauiii,  plur.,  135  (3). 
Frequentative  verbs,  288  (1),  (2)  ; 

double  formations,  288  (3). 
Fretus,  with   abl ,  418  ;    with   dat., 

418  a. 


INDEX. 


437 


Fricatives,  11  a. 

Fructus,  declined,  126. 

Fruyl,  compared,  169. 

Fruor,   with   abl.,   419 ;    with   ace., 

419  a  ;  gerundive  use  of,  419  a  N, 

550  a. 

Fuam,fuds,  etc.,  215  c. 
Ful,  etc.,  with  perf.  part.,  229  (3). 
Fungor,   with  abl.,  419;  with    ace., 

419  a  ;  gerundive  use  of,  419  a  N, 

550  a. 

Furd,  first  person  wanting,  235  v.  F. 
Future,  tense,  461  ;  used  for  imper., 

527   d;    how    supplied  in    subj., 

F  before   472 ;    impera.,  use    of, 

527  b,  c;  infin.  formation   of,  211 

a;  used  with  verbs  of  "hoping," 

etc.,  533  (5) ;  particip.,  206,  545  ; 

denoting   purpose,    545   a;    with 

sum,  229  (1). 
Future  perfect  tense,  462  (3) ;  old 

form  in  -so,  228  d ;  frequency  of 

use  of,  471  N. 
Futurum   esse,   fulsse,  ut,  with  subj , 

517  (2),  538  6. 
Fuvimus,  etc.,  215  c. 

G,  sound  of,  18;  euphonic  changes 
of,  66  ii.,  vii.,  69  i.,  ii.  (1),  71. 

Galliambic  verse,  657. 

Gaudeo,  semi-deponent,  196  a. 

Gems,  gender  of  names  of,  81  ii. 

Gender,  78  ff. ;  rules  of,  80  ff  ;  nat- 
ural and  grammatical,  79;  in  1st 
decl.,  92;  in  2d  decl.,  95,  96;  in 
3d  decl.,  118  ff. ;  in  4th  decl.,  126, 
127  ;  in  5th  decl.,  132 ;  epicene 
nouns,  84;  common,  83;  doubtful, 
83  N. 

Gener,  declined,  95. 

General,  relatives,  185  ;  conditions, 
477  d ;  truths  expressed  by  pres- 
ent, 463  ;  by  perfect,  463  a. 

Genitive,  88  (2)  ;  old  forms,  93  a,  c, 
d,  97  (7),  128  (1),  (2),  133  (1),  147 
(3),  180  a;  with  nouns,  350  ff . ; 
subjective  and  objective,  353;  poss. 
adj.'  used  for,  358  (1)  a;  dat.  used 
for,  358  (3) ;  of  characteristic  or 
quality,  356  ;  of  measure,  423  a  ; 
governing  word  omitted,  353  d,  e  ; 
predicate,  357 ;  two  gen.,  353  c  ; 
with  causa,  etc.,  4O4  b ;  with  opus, 
417  a;  partit.,  354;  of  source, 


352  (1);  with  dlgnus,  418  a;  of 
price,  371,  372 ;  with  verbs  of  ac- 
cusing, etc.,  367 ;  of  reminding, 
etc.,  366;  of  pitying,  364  (1); 
miseret,  etc.,  364  (2)  ;  with  verbs 
of  abundance,  409  a ;  of  the  pen- 
alty, 367  a ;  of  gerund  and  gerun- 
dive, 548  ff.,  551. 

Genius,  voc.  sing.,  97  (5). 

Gentile  names,  279. 

Genus,  in  phrase  id  genus,  398  6. 

Georgicon,  98  a. 

Gerund,  204 ;  syntax  of,  548  ff . 

Gerundive,  207  ;  syntax  of,  548  ff . ; 
of  utor,  fruor,  etc.,  550  a;  2d 
periphrastic  conjug.,  229  (2) ;  to 
express  purpose,  551,  552  (2) ; 
neuter  used  impersonally  govern- 
ing a  case,  552  (3). 

Glyconic  verse,  644  ff. 

Glyconic-pherecratic  verse,  648. 

Gm  and  gn  making  preceding  vowel 
long,  41. 

Gnomic  perfect,  463  a. 

-yd,  noun  ending,  272,  273  (3). 

Grammatical  figures,  659. 

Gratia,  causa,  etc.,  with  gen.,  404  6. 

Greek  ace.  so-called  (synecdochical), 
398  a. 

Greek,  nouns,  N  before  94 ;  1st  decl., 
94 ;  2d  decl.,  98 ;  3d  decl.,  124, 
125  ;  diphthongs,  how  represented 
in  Latin,  38  d  N. 

Grimm's  law,  308  N  2. 

Gutturals,  12  i  F. 

H,   its  nature,   9   a;   no   effect   on 

quantity,  38  a. 
Habeo,  with  perf.  part.,  547  c;  fut. 

impera.  for  present,  527  b. 
Hadria,  masc.  gen.,  92. 
Happening,  verbs  of,  with  ut,  etc., 

494  ff. 

Haud,  use  of,  557  g. 
Have,  conjugated,  249  (10)  a. 
Hemistich,  6O5  a. 
Hephthemimeris,  605  d. 
Heroic  verse,  614  F. 
Heteroclites,  134  (2),  136. 
Heterogeneous  nouns,  134  (1),  135. 
Hexameter  verse,  604,  614. 
Hiatus,  609  (1)  b. 
Hie,    declined,    180;    distinguished 

from    iste,  tile,    etc.,   181 ;    other 


438 


INDEX. 


uses  of,  447,  450;  hie,  as  adverb, 

187. 

Hidden  quantities,  37  N  2. 
Uiemps,  70,  101  F. 
Him,   her,    etc.,    how   expressed  in 

Latin,  179  «,  447. 
Hipponactean  verse,  650. 
Hindering,  verbs  of,  case  with,  413  ; 

moods  with,  493  (2). 
Historical  tenses,  200  (2) ;  present, 

466;  perfect,  199   b,   462  (1)   6; 

infinitive,  530  a. 
Honor,  declined,  107. 
Hoping,   verbs    of,   tense   of    infin. 

with,  533  (5). 
Horace,  meters  of,  645  ff. 
Hortatory,   sentences,    315    (4)   a ; 

subj.,  472. 
Huml,  loc.,  426  a. 
Huius,  as  genitive  of  price,  372  a  ; 

huius  modi,  180  f. 
Hypercatalectic  verse,  605  c. 
Hyper-meter,  605  c. 
Hypothetical  sentences.   See  Condi- 
tional sentences. 

/,  used  as  both  vowel  and  conso- 
nant, 3  b ;  vo.vel  sound  of,  16; 
consonant  sound  of,  18;  represent- 
ing ei,  38  d  x  ;  dropped,  63,  69 
(4) ;  t  for  ii,  3  /,  97  (4) ;  quantity 
of,  38  (1),  (2),  46,  225;  t-  stems, 
108,  150  ff. ;  tendency  of  adj.  to 
pass  into,  260  F  1 ;  in  abl.  sing,  of 
3d  decl.,  114;  inserted  in  certain 
present  stems,  230  /;  effect  of  con- 
sonant i  on  quantity  of  preceding 
vowel,  41 ;  -ia,  abstract  ending, 
273  (1). 

lacio,  compounds  of,  3  f,  299  a. 

-iacus,  adj.  ending,  268. 

Iambic  verse,  623  ff. ;  iambico-dac- 
tylic  verse,  654  (2),  (3) ;  iambic 
strophe,  653. 

lamdudum,  with  pres.  and  imperf., 
467. 

-ias,  fein.  patronym.  ending,  278  (3). 

•Ibam,  for  iebam,  in  4th  conj.,  227  c. 

Hndem,  308. 

-»6o,  fut.  ending  in  4th  conj.,  227  d. 

-j'cms,  icius,  adjective  endings,  268. 

Ictus,  6O6. 

Id,  as  antecedent,  450  (3) ;  id  genus, 
id  temporis,  etc.,  398  b. 


Idem,  declined,  182 ;  idem  and  isdem 
as  num.  plur.,  182  a. 

Ides  of  the  month,  660  (4). 

-ides,  -Ides,  -iades,  patronymic  end- 
ings, 277,  278. 

/ecu/',  declension  of,  111  (4). 

-itr,  passive  intiu.  ending,  214  r. 

-ies,  ending  of  numeral  adverbs, 
156  (4),  292  (1);  nouns  of  5th 
decl.  in,  133  a. 

lesus,  98  d. 

Igitur,  use  of,  570 ;  position  of, 
570  a,  590  a. 

-if,  noun  ending,  262  a. 

-ile,  noun  ending,  276  (3). 

-His,  adj.  ending,  262. 

Illative  particles,  570. 

Ille,  declined,  180;  distinguished 
from  hie,  iste,  etc.,  181 ;  other  uses 
of,  447,  450. 

Iirvtsmodl,  ISO/ 

-illo,  diminutive  verb  ending,  291. 

-illus,  -a,  -urn,  diminutive  endings, 
259  (3). 

-i/n,  acc.  ending  in  3d  decl.,  113 ; 
in  pres.  subj.,  215,  216,  241  c, 
242  ff. ;  adverbs  in,  557  b. 

Imbecillus,  155  (7). 

I  mind,  use  of,  582  6. 

Imperative,  mood,  198  (3);  sen- 
tences, 315  (4);  endings  of, 
213  (3);  use  of,  527;  subj.  for, 
472,  515  (3),  529. 

j  Imperfect  ten?e,  461 ;  continued  or 
custom,  action,  464;  epistolary, 
470  (1)  ;  other  uses,  47O  (3),  (4) ; 
of  oportet,  etc.,  474  d,  477  c. 

Impero,  constr.  with,  487,  489  (4). 

Impersonal  verbs,  250,  318;  pas- 
sive use  of  intransitives,  194, 
318  (3),  387  ;  clause  as  subject  of, 
318  (4),  a. 

Tmpetus,  declined,  137  (4). 

Impure  syllables,  25  x  2. 

-imus,  ending  of  temporal  adj., 
286  (3). 

In-,  neg.  prefix,  295  N,  299,  300  N, 
301  (6)  a. 

In,  prep,  with  acc.  and  abl.,  431  ; 
meanings  of,  560  (1 )  ;  with  names 
of  towns,  427;  with  words  in  app. 
with  a  locative,  426  h;  form  in 
comp.,  301  (6). 

•Ina,  noun  ending,  276  (2). 


INDEX. 


439 


Inceptive  or  inchoative  verbs,  289  ; 
quantity  of  vowel  before  sc  in, 
237  a. 

Incomplete  actions,  tenses  of,  461. 

Inde,  enclitic,  35  b. 

Indeclinable  nouns,  137  (1 ) ;  adjec., 
155  (5). 

Indefinite  pronouns,  177  (6) ;  de- 
clension of,  183  ff. ;  order  of  defi- 
niteness,  185  d;  uses  of,  454  ff.  ; 
subject  omitted,  317  (2),  (3) ;  you 
=  any  one,  472  a,  477  d  (1), 

529  (1)6. 

Independent  clauses,  314  (1). 
Indicative  mood,  197,  198  (1)  ;  in 

apodosis  of  conditions  contrary  to 
fact,  477  c. 

Indiyed,  cases  with,  414,  414  a. 

Ind'ignus.     See  Diynus. 

Indirect  discourse,  514  ff.  ;  use  of 
tenses  in,  516,  524, 525 ;  questions, 
518;  indicative  in" early  Latin, 
518  c;  with  si,  518  d;  distin- 
guished from  relative  clauses, 
518  e  N;  reflexive,  445  (2)  6, 
448  (2). 

Induo,  in  middle  voice,  193  a. 

-Ine,  -ione,  fern,  patronym.  endings, 

_  277  b. 

Inferior,  compared-,  170  (2) ;  followed 
by  dative  or  by  quam,  with  abl., 
416  e. 

Infinitive,  197  N,  203;  as  noun 
and  verb,  N  before  530 ;  as  sub- 
ject, 531  ;  as  object,  533  ;  as  pred. 
num.,  531  b ;  complementary, 
532  ;  nse  of  tenses  of,  538,  539  ; 
subject  of,  530;  historical  use, 

530  a ;     in     indirect     discourse, 

515  ff. ;  in  exclam.,  535  ;  poetical 
with  adj.,    536  a ;   denoting   pur- 
pose,   536;    with    prep.,    536  b ; 
perf.     for     present,     539    a,    b  ; 
omitted,  537. 

In  fit,  249  (10)  c?. 

Inflection,  2  ii.,  54  ff. 

Infra,  with  ace.,  429  ;  meanings  of, 

559  (11). 

Initio,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 
Iniurid,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 
Innitor,  with  abl  ,  420. 
Inqnam,  conjugated,  248  (5) ;  use  of, 

516  b. 

Instar,  indeclin.  noun,  137  (1). 


Instrument,  abl.  of,  407. 

Instrumental  case,  88  6. 

Insuesco,  cases  with,  421. 

Intensive  pronouns,  177  (3) ;  de- 
clined, 182  ;  use  of,  448  ff . ;  verbs, 
288. 

Intention,  denoted  by  fut.  part., 
545  a. 

Inter,  with  ace.,  429 ;  meanings  of, 
559  (li)  ;  inter  se,  etc.,  for  reci- 
procal relations,  449  (1). 

Inttred  loci,  355  (5),  a. 

Interest,  with  gen.,  368 ;  with  med, 
tud,  etc.,  369. 

lnttrjie.il,  inter/tat,  249  (10)  d. 

Interior,  compared,  170  (2). 

Interim,  position  of,  590  a. 

Interjections,  74  (8) ;  list  of,  583 ; 
use  of,  583  a  ;  with  nom.,  349  (1) 
a ;  with  dat.,  391  (3) ;  with  ace., 
400;  with  voc  ,  402  a,  b;  d,  not 
elided,  609  ( 1 )  a. 

Interrogative  sentences,  315  (2) ; 
particles,  574  ff.  ;  pronouns, 
177  (5);  declined,  183  ff . ;  as 
connectives,  591. 

Intrd,  with  ace.,  429;  meanings, 
559  (13). 

Intransitive  verbs,  191 ;  impersonal 
use  of  in  pass.,  194,  318  (3),  387. 

-inus,  adj.  ending,  265. 

Involuntary  agent,  407  a. 

-id,  noun  ending,  274  (2) ;  verbs  in, 
230  f;  quantity  of  their  root- 
vowel,  52, 

locus,  plur.  of,  135  (1). 

Ionic  verse,  633,  634. 

Ipse,  declined,  182  ;  use  of,  445  (2),  6, 
448,  449  (1)  ;  inter  ipsos,  449  (1 )  ; 

_  in  peculiar  apposition,  325  e. 

Irl,  use  of,  with  supine  to  form  fut. 
pass,  infin..  211  a,  554  (1). 

Irrational  feet,  618  (1 ),  643  a. 

Irregular  verbs,  239  ff. 

-is,  quantity  of,  final,  50;  fern, 
patronym.  ending,  278  (1) ;  -Is,  in 
Gentile  adj.,  279 ;  plur.  ending  in 
nouns  of  3d  decl.,  117;  in  adj., 
155  (4) ;  in  dat.  and  abl.  plur.  of 
Greek  nouns  of  3d  decl.  in  -a, 
125  (4). 

Is,  declined,  180;  as  antecedent, 
45O  (3) ;  for  3d  pers.  pron.,  179  a, 
447. 


440 


IXDEX. 


Islands,  gender  of  names  of,  81  ii. ; 

locative  use  of  names  of,  426. 
•isso,  intensive  verb  ending,  288  (4). 
Iste,   declined,    180;    distinguished 

from  hie.  Hie,  etc.,  181  (3)  ;  other 

uses  of,  447,  450. 
Istlc,  declined,  180  e. 
Istitisiitodi,  ISO/. 
Ita,  use  of,  557  d,  e. 
Itaqu?,  use  of,  570. 
-ittr,  adverbs  in,  174,  175,  557  a. 
Iterative  verbs,  288  a. 
-ito,     frequentative      verb     ending, 

288  (2). 

-itus,  adverbs  in,  292  (3). 
-tins,  adjective  ending,  280. 
~ium,  noun  ending,  273  (1)  ;  ending 

of    gen.    plur.    in   3d   declension 

nouns,  109  ff. ;  adj.,  150  ff. 
lure,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 
-ius,  adjective  ending,  268,  279. 
-ius,  gen.  sing,  ending,  146. 
lubeo,  moods  with,  489  (4),  533  (3). 
lipptter,  declension  of,  111  (3). 
lurdtns,  active  sense  of,  206  a. 
Ius  iura.nd.um,  apparent  compound, 

300  a. 

lussu,  137  (4)  a. 
lusto,  after  comparatives,  4166. 
Into,  case  with,  376  a. 
luxta,  with  ace.,  429 ;  meanings  of, 

559  (14). 
-ivus,  adj.  ending,  283. 

K,  early  disappearance  of,  3  c. 

Kalends  of  the  month,  66O  (4). 

Kindred,  constructions  with  app , 
326  ;  with  pred.  noun,  331  ;  with 
certain  gen.,  358,  362  ;  words  in 
Latin  and  English,  308  N  (1); 
consonants  interchanged,  71. 

Knowing,  verbs  .of,  moods  with, 
533  (1). 

L,  euphonic  changes  of,  71,  72. 

Labials,  12  iii. 

Lac,  nom.  formation,  103  6. 

Lampas,  declined,  124. 

Lapis,  declined,  102. 

Last  place   in    sentence   seemingly 

emphatic,  599  d. 
Latin  grammar,  defined,  1 ;  divisions 

of,  2. 
Letters,  division  of,  4  ff. ;  sounds  of, 


15  ff.  ;  representing  numerals, 
162 ;  as  abbreviations  of  prae- 
nomina,  666  d. 

Lil>et,  impers.,  250  a. 

Libio,  without  prep.,  426  d. 

Licet,  impersonal  verb,  250  a ;  case 
of  predicate  word  with,  531  c; 
indie,  in  conditions  contr;irv  to 
fact,  477  c  (cf .  474  d)  •  as  "con- 
junction meaning  '•  although,"  480 
(1),  480  N. 

-hmus,  superl.  in,  167. 

Linguals,  12  ii.  F. 

Liquet,  impers..  250  a. 

Liquids,  10  (1)  ;  liquid  stems,  101, 
103,  104. 

•Us,  adj.  ending,  260. 

Locative  case,  88  a ;  in  1st  decl., 
93 ;  in  2d  decl.,  97  (3) ;  in  3d 
decl.,  112 ;  clomul  beside  domi, 
130  a,  426  (2)  a;  of  names  of 
towns,  etc.,  426  (2) ;  absorbed  by 
ablative,  403  F  ;  animl  with  verbs 
and  adj.,  426  (2)  b. 

Locuples,  gen.  plur.  of,  155  (3)  a. 

Locus,  plur.  of,  135  (1);  as  abl.  of 
place,  426  (2)  c;  with  gen.  in- 
stead of  pred.  noun,  331  (3) ; 
interea  loci,  etc.,  355  (5)  a. 

Logaoedic  verse,  643,  644. 

Longius,  with  or  without  quam, 
416  c. 

Ludi*,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 

-luft,  -la,  -him,  nom.  and  adj.  ending, 
257  ff.  ;  dimin.,  259  ff. 

AT,  feeble  pronunciation  when  final, 

18  d;    elision   in    verse,  609(1); 

euphonic  change  of,  66  v. 
Mdctus,  mdcte,  155  (6). 
Magis   and    tiidxime,    uses    to    form 

compar.  and  superl.,  173. 
Magnus,  compared,  169  ;  as  gen.  of 

price,  372  ;  as  abl.  of  price,  408  a. 
Making,  etc.,  verbs  of,  with  two  ace., 

394(1). 
M aid,  conjugated,  244;  mtilim,  mdl- 

lem,    in    expressions    of    wishing, 

473   c,  491,  527    d ;    mood  with, 

487,  489  ff. 
Mains,  compared,  169. 
Mane,  137  (1). 
Manner,  abl.  of,  410 ;    adverbs  of, 

557  a  (also  N  2),  557  d. 


INDEX. 


441 


Masculine,  gender,  78,  80 ;  caesura, 
608  b;  adj.  used  as  nouns,  438  (1), 

(2). 

Material,  nouns,  76  iv. ;  adj.,  268; 
abl.  of,  405  c. 

May,  how  expressed  in  Latin,  474, 
474  d. 

Med,  tua,  etc.,  with  refert  and  interest, 
369. 

Means,  abl.  of,  407 ;  persons  re- 
garded as,  407  a. 

Measure(s),  ace.  of,  423  a ;  ex- 
pressed by  gen.  of  cliarac.,  356, 
423  a  ;  abl.  of,  415 ;  Roman  tables 
of,  685  (cf.  also  662). 

Med,  for  me,  179  d. 

Meditative  verbs,  288  a. 

Medial  vowels,  5  F  2. 

Medius,  use  to  denote  "  middle  of," 
442. 

Meminl,  conjugated,  249  (2);  perf. 
as  pres.,  471  a ;  use  of  imperative, 
5276;  with  gen.,  365  ;  with  ace., 
365  a,  b;  tense  of  infin.  with, 
538  a. 

-men,  -mentum,  noun  endings,  275. 

Metis,  gen.  with  in  mentein  venit, 
353  d. 

-met,  enclitic  suffix  attached  to  pron., 
179  b,  186  (2)  b. 

Metre(s),  600;  kinds  of,  603;  dac- 
tylic, 614  ff . ;  iambic,  618,  623  ff . ; 
trochaic,  618  ff. ;  anapaestic,  630  ; 
logaoedic,  643  ff . ;  elegiac,  615; 
Ionic,  633,  634;  bacchiac  and 
cretic,  631 ;  Sapphic,  646 ;  Ado- 
nic, 644;  choriambic,  632  ;  choli- 
ambic,  628;  Alcaic,  647;  Ascle- 
piadean,  645  ;  Saturnian,  642  ; 
Galliambic,  657  ;  Phalaecian,  649 ; 
miscellaneous,  650  ff. ;  of  Horace 
and  Catullus,  645  ff 

Metathesis,  72,  659  (20). 

Metrical  accent,  6D8. 

Metuere,  cases  with,  378;  moods 
with,  492,  492  b. 

Meus,  186.^ 

Ml,  for  mi  hi,  179  d ;  as  voc.  of  meus, 
186  (2). 

Middle  voice,  193  a,  6 ;  with  ace., 
395. 

Mile,  Roman,  665  (I). 

Miles,  declined,  102 ;  used  collec- 
tively, 346  (1)  a,  435. 


Mllitiae,  as  loc.,  426  a. 

Mllle,  declension   of,    160;    use  of, 

161  g,  h. 
Million,    how   expressed   in   Latin, 

161  h;  a  million  sesterces,  663  N  3. 
•mini,  ending  of  2d   person   plural, 

213,  214. 

-mind,  old  imperative  ending,  227  f. 
Minns,  with  or  without  quatn,  416  c; 

with  minime,  to  indicate  inferior 

degree  of  a  quality,  164  d ;  mini- 
me used  for  "  no/'  582  a;  as  gen. 

of   price,  372;    as  abl.   of   price, 

408  a. 

Mlror,  conjugated,  223. 
Mirum  quam  or  quantum,  518  b. 
M/sereor,     miseresco,     miseret,    with 

gen.,  etc.,  364. 
Miseror,  with  ace.,  365  a. 
Mlfisum  facio,  547  c,  examples. 
Miffs,    declined,    152  ;     compared, 

165. 
Mixed  conjugation  of  various  verbs, 

226. 
Modera/i,  with  ace.  and  dat.  in  diff. 

senses,  378. 
-modi,  annexed  to  pronouns,  180  ft 

185  a. 

Modo,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 
Modo,  "provided  that,"  with  sub]., 

504  ;    noa    modo,   etc.,    563    (2)  ; 

modo  .  .  .  modo,  563  (1)  b. 
Moneo,  conjugated,  222,  223  ;  cases 

with,    366,    367   c;  moods    \\ith, 

487,  490. 

Money,  Roman,  662,  663. 
M  onometer,  604. 
Monosyllables,  quantity  of,  45,  47 

ff . ;    regarded    as    accented,    31; 

certain  not  elided,  609  (1)  a. 
Months,  gender  of  names  of,  80  ii. ; 

division  of,  660  (4). 
Mood  and  tense  signs,  224. 
Moods,  197  ;  use  of  indie  ,  198  (1) ; 

use  of  subj.,  198  (2).  472  ff. ;  use 

of  impera.,  198  (3),  527  ff. ;  inrin. 

sometimes  regarded  as,  197  N. 
Mora,  26  a,  601. 
More,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 
Morior,  irreg.  infin.  of,  227  b.- 
Motion,  ace.  of,  425,  426;  implied, 

426  /;  verbs  of,  case  with,  377 

(3);    with  supine   to  denote  pur- 
pose, 554  (2). 


442 


INDEX. 


Multiplicatives,  286  (1). 

Multare,  constr.  with,  367  b. 

Afulttu,  compared,  169  ;  multum  and 
mrdto,  as  adverbs,  557  b,  c;  muld 
as  gen.  of  price,  372. 

Mumjicus,  compared,  168  a. 

-mus,  adjective  ending,  282. 

Mutes,  9  ii. ;  divisions  of,  11,  12; 
mute  and  liquid  producing  com- 
mon quantity  of  preceding  vowel, 
29  ;  but  not  in  early  versification, 
641  6. 

Mute  stems,  101,  103. 

Aluto,  cases  with,  408  6. 

N,  before  palatals,  18  c;  before  s, 
18  e ;  euphonic  changes  of,  66  vi., 
69  (3) ;  inserted  in  the  present  stem 
of  certain  verbs,  230  d. 

yam,  namque,  etc.,  571. 

Names,  of  persons,  277,  278,  666 ; 
of  nations,  279. 

Nasals,  10  i. 

Ndfu,  137  (4)  a. 

Nat  us,  with  abl.,  405. 

Nauci,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 

Nd  and  tit,  making  preceding  vowel 
short,  42. 

-n&,  enclitic,  35  a;  uses  of,  574  ff. 

Ne,  negative,  557  g;  quantity  of  its 
compounds,  307  ;  with  imperative, 
527  a ;  with  hortatory  subjunctive, 
472 ;  in  wishes,  473 ;  nednm,  482 
d ;  ne  non,  492 ;  in  clauses  of 
purpose, 482  (I);  of  intended  ob- 
ject, 483  6  ;  with  quidem,  563  (2) 
6,572  b;  as  affirmative  particle, 
583  c. 

Nee  .  .  .  et  (que),  565  d ;  necne,  581  ; 
neque  rather  than  et  non,  571  a. 

Necessdrio,  after  comparatives,  416 
6. 

Nedum,  with  subj.,  482  d. 

Nefas,  indeclin.,  137  (1);  with  su- 
pine in  -u,  555. 

Ne  fasti  dies,  660  (6). 

Negatives,  557  g ;  nee  tillus,  etc., 
for  et  nullus,  etc  ,  571  a. 

Nemo,  declension  of,  137  (3)T~ 

JN  equa  rather  than  nequae,  185  6,  c. 

Neqnam,  indeclin.,  155  (5)  ;  com- 
pared, 169. 

Nequed,  conjugated,  249  (8). 

Ne  .  .  .  quidem,  563  a,  b,  572  6. 


Neguis,  declension  of,  185  c. 

Nendo  an,  579  a;  itescio  quis,  etc., 
518  a. 

Neuter,  declension  of,  145,  146 ;  use 
of,  460. 

Neuter,  nouns,  of  2d  decl.,  95  ff. ; 
of  3d  decl.,  103  ff.,  118  ff.;  adj. 
and  pron.  with  part,  gen.,  355 
(5) ;  pron.  as  ace.  of  spec.,  398 
b;  verbs  (see  Intransitive). 

Neve  or  neu,  after  ut  or  ne,  482  (I) ; 
with  impera.,  527  a. 

Nihil  and  nihilam,  137  (1)  a;  nihiR, 
as  gen.  of  price,  372  a;  nihilo, 
as  abl.  of  price,  408  a. 

Nimium  quantum,  518  6. 

Nisi,  308. 

Nitor,  with  abl.,  420. 

Nix,  stem,  101  d. 

No,  how  expressed,  582. 

Nolo,  conjugated,  243 ;  noli,  with 
infin.  for  prohibitions,  529  c;  no- 
lim,  nollem,  in  expressions  of  wish- 
ins,  473  c,  491,  527  d;  mood  with, 
489  ff. 

Nome*  est  mt&t,  326  a.  k 

Nominative  csise,  88  (1) ;  formation 
in  3d  decl.,  1OO  ff . ;  as  subject, 
316 ;  other  uses,  349  ;  w?ith  opus, 
417  a. 

Non,  etc.,  557  g ;  omitted  after  non 
modo,  563  (2)  b  ;  non  niodd  .  .  .  se d 
etiam,  etc.,  563  (2) ;  non  gxo,  non 
qtiin,  etc ,  521 ;  »o/i  dubito,  499 
a,  b. 

Nones  of  the  month,  66O  (4). 

Nonne,  575. 

Sos,  for  eqo,  443. 

Noster,  declined,  186  (2). 

Nostrds,  declined,  188  a. 

Nostn  and  nostrum,  use  of,  178  P. 

Not  and  nor,  how  expressed  in  pur- 
pose clauses,  etc.,  482  (1),  527  a. 

Nouns,  74  (1);  classes  of,  75,  76; 
defective,  134  (3),  137  ff.;  sing, 
and  plur.  in  diff.  meanings,  140; 
heteroclite,  134  (2),  136 ;  hetero- 
geneous, 134  (1),  135;  derivation 
of,  254  ff. ;  peculiarities  in  uses 
of,  432  ff . 

-ns,  particip.  and  adj.  ending,  154; 
constr.  with  partic.  in.  361  ;  mak- 
ing long  quantity  of  preceding 
vowel,  41. 


INDEX. 


443 


Nubo,  with  dat.,  381  a. 

Nullus,  decl.  of,  145,  146;  supply- 
ing cases  of  nemo,  137  (3) ;  for 
non  ullits,  etc.,  455  a. 

Num,  576,  579. 

Number,  iu  nouns,  85;  in  verbs, 
201 ;  of  verb  with  collective 
noun,  346  (1);  with  two  or  more 
nouns,  319  ff. 

Numerals,  156  ff . ;  cardinal,  157 
(1);  ordinal,  157  (2) ;  distributive, 
157  (3) ;  placed  in  rel.  clause,  341 
c ;  letters  for,  162 ;  adverbs,  157 
(4);  multiplicative,  286  (1);  pro- 
portional, 286  (2) ;  temporal,  286 
(3). 

Nummus,  663. 

Numquis,  185  6. 

Nundinae,  135  (4);  quantity  of  -u, 
42  a  ;  -nus,  adj.  endiug/263  ff ., 
279,  282;  in  adj.  of  time,  264; 
in  distributives,  265  6. 

0,  sound  of,  16;  euphonic  changes 
of,  59   ff. ;  quantity  of  final,  46; 
retained  after  z^  and  u,  59  b,  c;  as 
interjection,  583  ;  as  noun  ending, 
103  c,  271  (1). 

Oaths,  583  b. 

Ob,  with   ace.,  429;    meanings,  559 

(15) ;  form  in  comp.,  301  (7). 
Object,  direct,  392  ff . ;  indirect,  373, 

374. 

Objective  genitive,  353  (2). 
Oblique  cases,  88  c. 
Obliviscor,  with  gen.,  etc.,  365. 
Odor,  compared,  170  (3). 
Oc.tonarius,   iambic,    626;    trochaic, 
_621. 

Odl,  conjugated,  249  (1). 
Oe,  diphthong,  7  ;  how  pronounced, 
_17. 
Ohe,  interjection,  583;  quantity  of, 

38  (2). 

01,  old   diphthong,    7  a;  how  pro- 
nounced, 17. 

-o/ens,    -olentus,    adjective     endings, 

285. 

Olins,  for  ilk,  180  a. 
-olus,  -a,   -u?r>,  diminutive    endings, 

259  (1). 

~om  (-dm),  for  -urn,  -urn,  97  (7). 
-on,  Greek  noun  ending,  98. 
-on,  for  -drum,  98  a. 


Open  syllables,  25   N  3 ;  vowels,  5 

F  2. 

Oplnione,  after  comparatives,  416  b. 
Oportet,   impersonal,    250  a ;  indie. 

in  contrary  to  fact  conditions,  477 

c  (cf.  474  d). 
Oppidum,  in  app.  with  names   of 

towns,  426  g,  h. 
[Ops],  declined,  137  (4). 
Optative  subjunctive,  473. 
Opus,  work,  declined,  107. 
Opus,    need,    with    abl.,   417 ;    with 

other  cases,  417  a ;  with  supine  in 

-u,  555. 

-or,  noun  ending,  255  (2). 
0 ratio   obllqua,   514  ff. ;    tenses   in, 

525. 

Order  of  words,  584  ff. 
Ordinal  numbers,  157   (2) ;  in  ex- 
pressions of  time,  161  i. 
Origin,    participles    of,    with    abl., 

405  ;  denoted  by  gentile  adjectives, 

279  ;  by  patrials,  188. 
Orior,  irreg.  forms  of,  227  a. 
Orpheus,  declined,  98. 
Oro,  with  two  ace.,  394  (2) ;  moods 

with,  486. 
-os,  quantity  of  final,  50 ;  for  -us  in 

second  decl.,  59  b,  c,  95. 
•os,  noun  ending,  106  a,  255  (2). 
Oos-,  derivatives  from,  255  N. 
Vs  (ossis),  declension  of,  110. 
-osus,  adj.  ending,  285. 
Ou,  old  diphthong,  7  a. 
Ovat,  conjugated,  249  (10)  e. 

P,  euphonic  changes  of,  66  iii.,  vi. ; 
parasitic,  70. 

Pace,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 

Paenitet,  impers.,  250  a;  with  gen., 
etc.,  364  (2),  365  6. 

Palatals,  12  i. 

Panthi^s,  voc.  of,  98  c. 

Paradigms,  of  nouns,  1st  decl.,  91 ; 
2d  decl..  95;  3d  decl.,  cons, 
stems,  102,  104,  107 ;  i-  stems, 
1C9;  peculiar  nouns,  110;  4th 
decl.,  126;  5th  decl.,  132;  Greek 
nouns,  1st  decl.,  94;  2d  decl.,  98; 
3d  decl.,  124;  adject.,  1st  and  2d 
decl.,  143,  146 ;  3d  decl.  of  three 
endings,  150;  of  two  endings, 
152;  of  one  ending,  154;  pers. 
pron.,  178 ;  demons,  pron.,  180 ; 


444 


IXDEX. 


FJ!.,  interrog.,  indef.  pron.,  184, 
185;  intensive  pron.,  182;  pos- 
-ses?ive  pron.,  186  ;  patrials,  188  ; 
su7ii,  215;  jwssum,  216;  regular 
verbs,  222,  223 ;  irreg.  (unthe- 
matic)  verbs,  239  ff. ;  defective 
verbs,  249. 

Parasitic,  vowels,  64;  consonants, 
70,  101  d. 

Pardtns,  with  infin.,  536  (2). 

Paroemiac  verse,  63O  (4). 

Pars,  use  of,  iu  fractional  expres- 
sions, 161  k;  in  abl.  of  place  with- 
out prep.,  426  c. 

Participles,  uses  of,  542  ff. ;  as  ad- 
jectives, 546 ;  with  gen.  or  ace., 
361 ;  perf.  part,  with  sum,  229 
(3) ;  with  habed,  547  c ;  future 
part,  with  sum,  229  (1) ;  i  or  e  in 
abl.  of  pres.  part.,  155  (2) ;  of  de- 
pon.  verbs,  206  a,  544  a,  b ;  agree- 
ment of,  with  app.  or  pred.  noun, 
341  ;  in  abl.  absol.,  422,  422  d ; 
used  for  clauses,  547 ;  denoting 
origin,  405 ;  for  English  nouns  in 
"  ing,"  547  b. 

Particles,  73,  562  ff. 

Partitive  genitive,  354,  355 ;  appo- 
*.ition,  325  c. 

Parts  of  speech,  73  ff. 

Parvos  (-us),  compared,  169  ;  parvl, 
as  gen.  of  price,  372  ;  pared,  as 
abl.  of  price,  408  a. 

Passive  voice,  193  (3)  ;  impersonal 
of  intrans.  verbs,  194,  387;  sec- 
ond accusative  retained  in,  394 
(2)  c. 

Paler,  declined,  104;  familias,  93  c. 

Patrial  pronouns,  177  (8),  188. 

Patronymics,  277,  278. 

Pecuniiie,  as  genitive  of  penalty, 
367  «. 

Pei'ero,69  (5),  301  (8). 

Pelaqns,  gender  of,  96  (2) ;  plur.  of, 
98  c. 

Penalty,  how  expressed,  367  a,  b. 

Penes,  with  ace.,  429  ;  meanings  of, 
559  (16). 

Pensi,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 

Penthemimeris,  as  part  of  a  verse, 
605  d;  as  a  caesura,  608  b. 

Penult(s),  25  x  (1);  quantity  of, 
certain,  51. 

Per,  with   ace.,  429  ;  meanings  of, 


559  (17) ;  form  in  comp.,  301  (8) ; 

intensive  force  in  comp.,  295  x. 
Perceiving,    verbs   of,    mood   with, 

533  (1)  ;  with  pres.  part.,  543  b. 
Perduim,  etc.,  241  c. 
Perfect  stem,   208,  210 ;  formation 

in   3d   conj.,  231  ;  in   other  conj., 

218 ;    v  omitted   iu   parts    from, 


Perfect,  tense,  199,  462  ;  historical 
and  perf.  def.,  462  (1) ;  old  sul»j. 
form  in  -sim,  228  d ;  quan- 
tity of  dissyllabic  perfects,  51 ; 
"  gnomic,"  463  a  ;  with  ]>oslquam, 
etc.,  469  ;  otherwise,  470  ff.,  471 ; 
distinction  betw.  perf.  and  pres.  of 
the  subj.  in  certain  uses,  472  c, 
473  a,  476  (2)  b,  481  a,  482  b, 
526  ;  subj.  for  impera.,  472  b,  529 
(1)  a  ;  infm.,  how  used,  538,  539; 
participle,  544  ;  with  habed,  547 
c ;  of  dep.  verbs,  544  a,  b ;  active 
meaning  in  certain  other  verbs, 
206  a,  249  (1)  ;  for  pluperfect, 
469 ;  perfect  participle  stem,  208, 
211. 

Period,  594  ff.  ;  difference  bet. 
periodic  and  non-periodic  sentence, 
596  a. 

Periphrastic  conjugations,  229. 

Permdgno,  as  abl.  of  price,  408  a. 

Pernox,  155  (6). 

Personal,  pronouns,  177  (1),  178; 
omission  of,  316  a,  317  ;  plur.  for 
sing,  in  1st  person,  443;  3d,  sup- 
plied by  demoustr.,  447  ;  endings 
of  the  verb,  213. 

Person,  of  verbs,  201 ;  of  the  im- 
perative, 201  a ;  second  used  in- 
definitely, 472  a,  474  c,  477  d  (1  ), 
529  b;  of  verb,  with  subj.  of  diff. 
pers.,  322 ;  of  verb,  a  rel.  clause, 
323. 

PtYo,  cases  with,  394  (2)  a. 

Ph,  il  iii.  F  ;  sound  of,  18  g. 

Phalaecian  vfrse,  649. 

Pherecratic  verse,  644,  648. 

Phonetic  decay,  x  before  58. 

Phrases,  314  b;  order  of  words  in, 
585  ff. 

Piger,  declined,  143. 

Piget,  impersonal,  250  a;  with  gen., 
etc.,  364  (2),  365  b. 

Pill,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 


INDEX. 


445 


Place,  constructions  of,  425  ff. ;  cer- 
tain distinctions  in,  page  359, 
note. 

Plants,  gender  of  names  of,  81  ii. 

Plebes  and  plebs,  133  a  F. 

Plenty,  abl.  of,  409. 

Plenus,  with  abl.  or  gen.,  409,  409  a. 

-plex,  multiplicative  ending,  286  (1 ). 

Pluperfect  tense,  462  (2)  ;  old  subj. 
form  in  -sem,  228  d ;  epistolary, 
470  (1). 

Plural,  number,  86 ;  nouns  lacking, 
138 ;  nouns  used  only  in,  139 ; 
list  of  nouns  with  diff.  meaning  in 
sing,  and  plur.,  140;  plur.  of  diff. 
gender  from  sing.,  135 ;  used  for 
sing.,  437 ;  nos  for  ego,  443 ;  of 
verbs  or  adj.,  with  collective  nouns, 
etc.,  346  ff. ;  of  abstract  nouns, 
437  (3). 

Pluriml,  as  gen.  of  price,  372 ;  plu- 
rimo,  as  abl.  of  price,  408  a. 

-plus,  proportional  adjective  ending, 
286  (2). 

Plus,  declined,  153  ;  compared,  169  ; 
with  or  without  quam,  416  c;  as 
gen.  of  price,  372. 

Poemafis,  nom.,  103/V  dat.  and  abl. 
plur.,  125  (4). 

Pondo,  indecl.,  137  (1). 

Pone,  with  ace.,  429 ;  meanings  of, 
559  (18). 

Pond,  with  abl.  and  in,  431  c. 

Posed,  with  two  ace,,  394  (2); 
quantity  of  the  first  d,  237  a. 

Position,  quantity  by,  28,  29;  in 
early  verse,  609  (1)  d,  641  b;  em- 
phasis affected  by,  584  ff. 

Positive  degree,  164  (1). 

Possessive,  pronouns,  177  (7),  186  ; 
used  for  gen.  of  personals,  358 
(2) ;  in  appos.  with  a  genitive,  347 
(2)  ;  with  refert  and  interest,  369 ; 
omission  of ,444 ;  position  of,  444, 
587  ;  compounds,  295  a. 

Possum,  conjugated,  216 ;  indie,  in 
contrary  to  fact  conditions,  477 
c  (cf.  474  d)  ;  possum  for  possem, 
474  d  N  ;  non  possum  quln,  etc., 
499  a. 

Post,  with  ace.,  429 ;  meanings  of, 
559  (19)  ;  as  adv.  with  abl.  in  ex- 
pressions of  time,  559  (19),  (3)  F; 
case  with  comp.  of,  377. 


Postquam,    moods   with,    506,   508 

.  N  2 ;  preference  for  perf.  tense, 
469. 

Posterior,  compared,  170  (2). 

Postridie,  with  gen.,  355  (5)  6  ;  with 
quam,  507. 

Postulo,  case  with,  394  (2)  a. 

Potential  subjunctive,  474. 

Potior  (verb),  irreg.  forms  of,  227  a; 
with  abl.,  419 ;  with  ace.,  419  a  ; 
with  gen.,  419  b ;  use  of  gerundive, 
cf.  550  a. 

Potior  (adj.),  compared,  170  (3). 

Potis,  155  (5). 

Potus,  active  meaning  of,  206  a, 
233  F  3. 

Prae,  with  abl.,  430 ;  meanings  of, 
561  (7) ;  intensive  force  in  comp., 
295  b  N  ;  quality  in  certain  comp., 
39  a  ;  case  with  verbs,  comp.  with, 
377. 

Praenomina,  666  a;  abbreviations 
of,  666  d. 

Praesens,  declined,  154. 

Praeter,  with  ace.,  429 ;  meanings 
of,  559  (20). 

Predicate,  309  (2) ;  nom.  or  ace., 
327  ff. ;  agreeing  in  gender  and 
number  with  its  noun,  329  ;  adj., 
334;  dat.  instead  of,  331  (1); 
verbs  used  with,  328 ;  case  of, 
with  licet,  etc.,  531  c :  with  com- 
plementary infin.,  329  l>,  532  b  ; 
with  verbs  of  saying,  534  6 ;  with 
abl.  absol.,  422  d  (4). 

Prepositions,  74  (6) ;  with  ace.,  429 ; 
with  abl.,  430  ;  with  ace.  and  nbl., 
431 ;  forms  in  comp.,  301  ;  mean- 
ings of,  558  ff. ;  inseparable,  302 ; 
use  as  adverbs,  298  a,  559  (foot- 
notes) ;  proclitic  in  accent,  36  ;  po- 
sition of,  589;  placed  after  their, 
nouns,  431  d,  e. 

Present  stem,  209;  formation  in 
1st,  2d,  and  4th  conj.,  218  (1)  a; 
in  3d  conj.,  230. 

Present,  tense,  199,  200  (1),461; 
histor.  use,  466 ;  denoting  cus- 
tomary action,  464 ;  of  general 
truths,  463  ;  of  extant  writers, 
465;  with  dum,  468;  retained 
after  past  tense  in  indirect  dis- 
course, 516  a;  with  iam  dudnrn, 
etc.,  467  ;  iufin.,  used  how,  538  ; 


446 


INDEX. 


particip.  declined,  154;  use  of, 
543. 

Priapean  verse,  648  (2). 

Price,  abl  of,  4O8 ;  gen.  of,  371, 
372. 

Pridie,  with  gen.,  355  (5)  b ;  with 
quam,  507. 

Primary,  suffixes,  255  a;  tenses, 
200  (1). 

Primitive  words,  252 ;  examples  of, 
256. 

Principal,  parts  of  verbs,  220,  221  ; 
clauses,  314  (1). 

Principio,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 

Prior,  compared,  17O  (1) ;  primus 
for  "  first  part  of,"  442 ;  prior, 
refers  to  two  only,  161  d;  uses  of 
primus  with  subject,  object,  etc., 
compared,  557  i. 

Priusquam,  moods  with,  5O5. 

Pro,  with  abl.,  430;  meanings  of, 
561  (8) ;  original  d  retained  in, 
302  (3)  ;  with  abl.  for  pred.  noun, 
331  (2) ;  quantity  of  compounds 
and  derivatives  of,  306. 

Prqfesll  dies,  660  (6). 

Prohibco,  constr.  with,  413. 

Prohibitions,  472,  528.  529. 

Proinde,  accent  of,  35  b ;  use  of, 
570. 

Promising,  verbs  of,  tense  of,  infin. 
wich,  533  (5). 

Pronouns,  74  (3);  pers.,  177  (1) ; 
decl.,  178 ;  demons.,  177  (2) ;  decl., 
180;  uses  of,  181,  450;  rel.,  177 
(4);  decl.,  183,  184;  agreement 
of,  342  ff. ;  iuterrog.,  177  (5)  ; 
decl.,  183,  184 ;  indef .,  177  (6)  ; 
decl.,  183,  184;  intens.,  177  (3); 
decl.,  182  ;  possess.,  177  (7) ;  decl., 
186;  patri.il,  177  (8),  188;  com- 
pound, 185;  with  part,  gen.,  355 
(5) ;  peculiarities  in  use  of,  443 
ff. ;  correl.,  187 ;  omitted  with  abl. 
absolute,  422  c. 

Pronunciation,  2  i.,  3  ff . ;  of  vowels, 
16 ;  of  diphthongs,  17 ;  of  conso- 
nant^, 18. 

Prope,  with  ace.,  429;  meanings  of, 
559  (21). 

Proper  nouns,  76  i. 

Propior,  compared,  170  (1) ;  propior, 
etc.,  with  ace.,  39O  (4) ;  with  dat., 


-pse, 
Pu 


Proportional  numerals,  286  (2). 

Propter,  with  ace.,  429  ;  meanings 
of,  559  (22). 

Prosody.     See  Versification. 
|  Prosnicere,   with   dat.    and   ace.,  in 
diff.  senses.  378. 

Prosum,  215  d. 
!  Protasis,  N  before  476. 

Protraction  of  lon.ir  syllables  in 
certain  kinds  of  verse,  613  a,  645 
ff. 

Piocidere,  with  dat.  and  ace.  in  diff. 
senses,  378. 

Proviso,  clauses  of,  504. 
,  -pte,  enclitics,  35  a. 
udet,    impersonal,    250    a  ;    with 
gen.,  etc.,  364  (2),  365  b. 

Punishing,  verbs  of,  constr.  with, 
367  a,  b. 

Pure  syllables,  25  N  2. 

Purpose,  expressed  by,  ut,  etc.,  with 
subj.,  482  (1)  ;  relative  clause, 
482  (2)  ;  gerund  or  gerundive 
with  ad  or  causa,  551  ;  f  ut.  part., 
545  a  ;  supine  with  verbs  of  mo- 
tion, 554  (2)  ;  infin.  (poet.),  536  ; 
different  expressions  for,  com- 
pared, 556  ;  dat.  of,  385. 

Pythiambic  verse,  651,  652. 

Qua  .  .  .  qua,  563  (1)6. 
i  Quaerdj  constr.  with,  394  (2)  a. 

Qaaetd,  old  form  of  quaero,  249  (9). 

Quality,  denoted  by  adj.,  74  (2)  ; 
gen.  of,  356;  abl.  "of,  411. 

Qu<nn,  withcompar.,  416  a,  c;  with 
superl.,  164  c  ;  with  plus,  minus, 
etc.,  416  c;  with  subj.  clauses, 
498,  516  e  ;  with  infin.  clauses, 
516  e;  with  ante,  505;  with  post, 
506;  with  other  expressions  of 
time,  507. 

Quamquam,  moods  with,  479,  480  ; 
without  verb,  480  c;  meaning 
"  and  yet,"  48O  6. 

Quamrisl  moods  with,  479,  480  ;  with- 
out verb,  480  c  ;  meaning  '•  how- 
ever much,"  480  a. 

Q>iandoquidem,  308. 

Qitanti,  as  gen.  of  price,  372. 

Quantity,  26  ;  of  vowels,  37  ff.  ;  of 
syllables,  27  ff  .  ;  natural,  27  ;  by 
position,  28,  29  ;  general  rules  of, 
37-44  ;  special  rules  of,  45-53  ; 


INDEX. 


447 


nouns  and  adverbs  of,  with  part, 
gen.,  355  (1),  (2) ;  hidden  quanti- 
ties, 37  N  2. 

Quasi-compounds,  300,  a,  b,  c. 

Quasi,  308;  mood  with,  481  (2); 
primary  tenses  with,  481  a. 

•que,  enclitic,  35  a,  590  b ;  use  and 
position  of,  562  (2),  590  b;  at- 
tached to  last  word  of  a  series, 

564  a ;  after  neque,  565  d ;    que 
.  .  .  que,  etc.,  563  a. 

Queis  and  quis,  old  forms  for  quibus, 

184  d. 

Queo,  conjugated,  249  (7). 
Questions,    574   ff.  ;    double,   565, 

565  a,  580,  581;  indirect,  518; 
direct,  in  indirect  discourse,  515 
(2)  ;  short  direct,  quoted,  516  c. 

Qul,  declined,  184;  rel.,  interrog., 
and  indef.,  183,  184  b;  as  abl., 
184,  184  c;  as  connective,  451. 

Quiet,  moods  with,,  519  ;  non  quia, 
521. 

Quicumque,  declension  of,  185 ;  mood 
with,  501  6. 

Quid  tibl  vis,  quid  huic  hominl  facias, 
etc.,  381  a  (cf.  also,  412  a).' 

Qnldam,  declension  of,  185  c ;  use 
of,  459. 

Quidem,  308 ;  use  of,  572 ;  position 
of,  590  a. 

Quilibet,  use  of,  454 ;  verb  part  in- 
flected, 454  a. 

Quin,  with  subj.  of  result,  483  (3) ; 
with  verbs  of  hindering,  493  (2) 
(cf.  499)  ;  non  quin,  521  ;  with 
pres.  indie,  equiv.  to  command, 
527  e. 

Quis,  declined,  184;  difference  be- 
tween noun  and  adj.  forms,  184 
b;  distiug.  from  uter,  460. 

Quisnam,  185  b. 

Quispiam,  185  c  ;  use  of,  458. 

Quisquam,  185  c ;  use  of,  454. 

Quisque,  185  c;  use  of,  184/;  in  ap- 
position, 325  d. 

Quisquis,  declension  of,  185 ;  mood  j 
wiih,  501  b. 

Quids,  185  c  ;  use  of,  454 ;  verb 
part  inflected,  454  a. 

Quo,  as  adverb  of  direction,  187, 
355  (3);  with  subj.  of  purpose, 
482  (3)  ;  non  quo,  521 ;  quo  .  .  . 
eo  (hoc,  etc.),  415. 


Quoad,  moods  with,  502  ff. 

Quod,  causal,  moods  with,  519; 
verb  of  saying  or  thinking  with, 
put  in  subj.,  520;  restrictive,  500 
(2)e;  quod  si,  451  a;  meaning 
"  the  fact  that,"  540  (4). 

Quoius  and  quoi,  for  cuius  and  cui, 
185  N. 

Quom,  old  form  of  cum,  59  c,  509  ff. 

Quominus,  with  verbs  of  hindering, 
etc.,  493  (2). 

Quoniam,  moods  with,  519. 

Quoque,  distinguished  from  etiam, 
573  ;  place  of,  573,  590  a. 

Quot,  157  (I) ;  correlative,  187. 

Quotation,  indirect,  514  ff. 

Quotient,  157  (4). 

7?,  euphonic  changes  of,  69  (5),  71, 

72. 

Rostrum,  plur.  of,  135  (3). 
Ratione,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 
Ratus,  in  pres.  meaning,  544  a. 
-re,  ending  of  2d  pers.  sing,  passive, 

213  (I),  223. 
Re-,  inseparable  prefix,  d  retained  in, 

302  (3). 
Reciprocal  relation,  how  expressed, 

449. 

Recordor,  cases  with,  365  a. 
Reckoning,  Roman  modes  of,  660 

Recuso,  constr.  with,  493  (2)  a. 

Redundant,  nouns,  134  (4) ;  adj., 
155  (7). 

Reduplication,  in  pres.  stem,  230 
b;  in  pert,  stem,  231  d ;  of  com- 
pounds, 231  d  (3) ;  quantity  of 
vowel,  231  d  (2). 

Refert,  with  gen.,  368  ff. ;  with  me  d, 
tud,  etc.,  369 ;  with  other  con- 
structions, 369  b. 

Reflexive,  pronoun,  179 ;  uses  of, 
445  ff. ;  in  indirect  discourse,  445 
a  ;  verbs,  193  (3)  a,  b. 

Regnum,  declined,  95. 

Rego,  conjugated,  222,  223. 

Regular  verbs,  217  ff. ;  paradigms 
of,  222,  223. 

Relative,  adverbs,  mood  with,  482 
(2),  483  (2)  ;  pronouns,  177  (4), 
183  ff. ;  agreement  of,  342  ff. ;  to 
express  "so-called,"  452;  person 
of,  323  ;  as  connectives,  451,  591 ; 


448 


INDEX. 


clauses  of  purpose,  482   (2)  ;    of 
result,  483  (2) ;  of  diaraciuusiie, 

500  (2);  as  protases,  5OO   (2)  c, 

501  c ;  restrictive,  500  (2)  c ;  po-  j 
sition  of,  596  (2) ;  in  infiu.,  516  d. 

Reminiscor,  case  with,  365. 

Repeated  action,  how  expressed, 
464;  as  general  condition,  477  d. 

Res,  declined,  132  ;  certain  uses  of, 
437  a  x,  439  (4)  a. 

Rests  in  verse,  613  l>. 

Resolution  of  syllables  in  verse, 
618  (2). 

Restrictive  clauses,  500  (2)  c. 

Result,  clauses  of,  483 ;  substan- 
tive clauses  of,  493  ff. ;  use  of 
tenses  in,  483  c,  524  a  (I)  ;  posi- 
tion of,  596  (2). 

Rhythm,  607  N. 

Rhythmical  sentence,  599  a. 

-riiitus,  superl.  in,  166. 

Hitu,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 

Rivers,  gender  of  names  of,  80  ii. 

~ro-,  noun  stems  in,  97  :  diminutive 
formations  from,  259  (3) ;  adj. 
stems  in,  143,  144. 

Rof/o,  with  two  ace.,  394  (2). 

Roots,  56,  57;  strong  and  weak 
forms  of,  253. 

V/-M&-,  derivatives  from,  255  x. 

Rus,  defective,  111  x  2  ;  used  like 
names  of  towns,  426  a. 

-rus,  fut.  part,  ending,  206,  211  b. 

S,  sound  of,  18 ;  feeble  sound  at  end 
of  words,  18  d  ;  euphonic  changes 
of,  67,  69  (1).  69  (5),  69  (0)  iii., 
71 ;  elision  of  final,  in  early  verse, 
6O9  (1)  d  ;  as  nom.  ending,' 9O  (1) ;  j 
as  stem  ending,  105  ff. ;  ace.  plur.  i 
ending,  9O  (6). 

Saepe,  compared,  176  ;  quantity  of  I 
e  in,  46  (2). 

Sal,  quantity  of  vowel,  47  a,  103  a  ; 
gender  of*  12O  (3). 

Salved,  conjugation  of,  249  (10)  b. 

Sane,  use  of,  572. 

Sapphic  verse,  646 ;  greater,  646  (2). 

Satago,  298  6. 

Satis,  with  part,  gen.,  355  (2). 

Satisfacio,  298  b,  3OO  6. 

Satur,  144  x. 

Saturnian  verse,  642. 

Saying,     verbs     of,    constr.    with, 


490  (2),  515  ff.,  533  (1)  ;  passive 

with  pred.  nom.,  534,  534  a. 
Scanning,  611. 
Scazon,  628  F. 
Scidi,  231  (3)  d. 
Stito,  scitote,  u>ed  for  the  wanting 

pres.,  227  e,  527  6. 
-sco,  verb  ending  (inceptive)  230  e, 

289;    quautitv    of   vowel   before, 

237  a. 
Se,  suus,  declension  of,  179, 186 ;  use 

of,  445  ff. 
Second,   decl.   of  nouns,  95  ff. ;  of 

adj.,  143  ff. ;  conjugation,  217  ff., 

234. 

Secondary  tenses.     See  Historical. 
Secnndus,    formation    of,    281,    559 

(23)  ;  scciindum  as  prep,  with  ace., 

429  ;  meanings  of,  559  (23). 
Secutus,  with  pres.  meaning,  544  a. 
Sed,  use  of,  566  (I). 
Sedeo,  sedo,  287  b. 
-sent,  old  pluper.  subj.  eudiug,  228  d. 
Semi-deponents,  196. 
Semi-vowels,  9  i.,  10. 
Sendrius,  iambic,  623,  624. 
Sendti,  sendtuos,  as  gen.  forms,  128 

(1),  128  (2),  131  F. 
Senex,  declension  of,  111  (I) ;  com- 
pared, 172  (2). 

Sens,  participle  of  eese,  215  b. 
Sentence(s),   309  ff.  ;    classification 

of,  311,315;  connecting  of  snc- 

cessives,  597. 
Separation,  abl.  of,  413  ;  verbs  of, 

compounded  with  al>,  de,  etc.,  380. 
Spread,  as  abl.  absol.,  422  c  F. 
Sestertius,  663. 
Short  syllable,  26,  27. 
-si  or  -sin,  ending  of  Greek  datives 

plural,  124. 
Si,  moods  with,  476  ff . ;  introducing 

indirect  questions,  518  d. 
Sibilant,  10  ii. 
Sic,  187,  557  d. 
Slcubi,  308. 
Siem,  sies,  etc.,  215  c. 
Silentio,  as  abl.  of  manner,  410  (2). 
-sim,   old   perfect    subjunc.   ending, 

228  d. 
Sinu'lis,  compared,  167:  with  gen., 

360;  with  dat.,  362  (4),  389. 
Simple  words,  251,  254  ff. ;  sentence, 

311  (1). 


INDEX. 


449 


Simul,  with  abl.,  431  g;  simul  .  .  . 
simul,  563  (1)  6;  simul  dc,  etc., 
469,  506. 

Sine,viiih  abl.,  430;  meanings  of, 
561  (9). 

Singular  number,  86 ;  for  plural, 
435,  436 ;  words  used  only  in, 
138  ;  words  lacking,  139. 

-sio,  abstract  ending,  272,  274(2). 

Siquidem,  308,  572  c. 

Siquis,  185  c. 

Sis  for  si  vis,  242  a. 

Sive,  use  of,  565. 

-so,  old  future  ending,  228  d ;  eu- 
phonic for  to,  71,  232,  255  ff. 

Soled,  semi-deponent,  196 ;  solitus  in 
pres.  meaning,  544  a  ;  solito  with 
compar.,  416  6. 

Solus,  declension  of,  145,  146. 

Sonants,  13  i. 

Sotadean  verse,  634. 

Sounds  of  the  letters,  15  ff. ;  vowels, 
16 ;  diphthongs,  17 ;  consonants, 
18. 

-sor,  ending  of  nouns  of  agency, 
270. 

-sorium,  noun  ending,  276  (5). 

Space,  ace.  of,  423. 

Spe,  as  abl.  after  comparatives, 
4166. 

Specification,  ace.  of,  398 ;  abl.  of, 
412. 

Specus,  gender,  127. 

Spirants,  10  ii. 

Spondaic  verse,  614  (2). 

Sponte,  137  (4)  a. 

Stems,  54  ff . ;  in  a-,  91,  143  ff., 
217  ff . ;  in  o-,  95,  143  ff. ;  in  i-, 
108  ff.,  150,  151 ;  in  1-,  217  ff. ; 
ending  in  a  consonant,  10O  ff., 
152  ff.,  217  ff. ;  originally  in  s-, 
105,  106,  109;  in  M-,  99,  126, 
141  F  3,  217  ff. ;  in  e-,  132,  217  ff. ; 
three  special  stems  in  verb,  208  ff. ; 
formation  of  stems  in  1st,  2d,  and 
4th  conj.,  218  ;  of  pres.  stem  in  3d 
conj.,  219(1),  230;  of  perf.  stem 
in  3d  conj.,  219  (1),  231  ;  of 
perf.  part,  stem  in  3d  conj.,  219 
(2),  232 ;  derivative  stems,  255  a. 
SMI,  stitl,  231  d,  231  d  (1). 
Strong  and  weak  forms  of  roots, 

253. 
Strophe  or  stanza,  612. 


Suadeo,  with  dat.,  376. 

Sub,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  431 ;  mean- 
ings of,  560  (2) ;  form  in  comp., 
301  (9) ;  lessening  force  in  comp., 
295  b  N. 

Subject,  310  (1 ) ;  nom.,  316 ; 
omitted,  316  a,  317,  318;  ace., 
401,  530  ;  of  histor.  infin.,  530  a  ; 
position  of,  596  N  3. 

Subjective  genitive,  353  (1)  ;  adj. 
or  possess,  pron.  used  for,  358 

(O,  (2). 

Subjunctive  mood,  198  (2), and  note 
before  472 ;  in  independent 
clauses,  472-475  ;  hortatory,  472  ; 
potential,  474 ;  optative,  473 ; 
dubitative,  475 ;  in  dependent 
clauses,  476  ff . ;  in  conditional 
clauses,  476,  477 ;  in  concessive 
clauses,  with  etsl,  etc.,  478;  with 
quamvls,  etc.,  479,  480 ;  in  com- 
parative clauses,  with  tamquam  si, 
velut  si,  etc.,  481 ;  with  quarn,  498, 
516  e ;  in  clauses  of  purpose,  482  ; 
of  result,  483  ;  substantive  clauses, 
484  ff . ;  with  verbs  of  fearing,  492  ; 
in  relative  clauses  (characteristic), 
500,  501 ;  without  ut,  491  ;  in 
temporal  clauses  with  antequam, 
etc.,  505 ;  with  dum,  etc.,  502, 
503;  with  postquam,  506;  with 
cum,  509  ff. ;  with  ubi,  etc.,  506, 
508 ;  in  clauses  of  proviso,  504 ; 
in  causal  clauses  with  quod,  etc., 
519  ;  with  non  quo,  etc.,  521  ;  of 
died,  puto,  etc.,  introducing  a 
cause,  520;  in  indirect  questions, 
518 ;  in  indirect  discourse,  514  ff . ; 
giving  other  people's  ideas,  522  ; 
by  attraction  (so  called),  523 ; 
tenses  of,  472  c,  473  a,  474  a, 
475  a,  476  (2)  b,  477  a,  6,  481  a, 
482  b,  483  c,  499  d,  524,  525. 

Subordinate  clauses,  314  (2) ;  in 
indirect  discourse,  515  (1);  re- 
tained in  indicative,  516  /;  in 
contrary  to  fact  conditions,  499 
d,  e ;  position  of,  596. 

Substantive  clauses  with  ut,  ne, 
etc.,  484  ff. ;  with  quod,  etc., 

540  (4) ;  with  the  infin.,  515  ff., 
531,  533  ;   as  indirect  questions, 
518 ;    different   kinds   compared, 

541  ff. 


450 


IXDEX. 


Subter,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  431 ; 
meanings  of,  56O  (3). 

Subtractive  expressions  in  nume- 
rals, 161  e,  162  (3). 

Stn.    See  ?e. 

Suffixes,  56;  primary  and  secon- 
dary, 255  a  ;  lists  of  common,  255 
(1)*  (2) ;  words  without,  254. 

Sum,  conjugated,  215 ;  with  gen., 
357;  with  dat.,  384;  in  perfect 
tenses  of  passive,  211 ;  in  peri- 
phrastic conjugations,  229 ;  with 
adj.  governing  substantive  clause 
with  ut,  etc.,  494  a,  497;  indica- 
tive in  conditions  coutrarv  to  fact, 
477  c  (cf.  474  d). 

Supellex,  111  (4). 

Super,  with  ace.  and  abl.,  431 ; 
meanings  of,  560  (4). 

Superior,  compared,  170  (2);  high- 
est part,  top  of,  442. 

Superlative,  164  (3)  ;  special  use 
of,  164_  (3)  b,  c,  442  ;  formed  wi,h 
mdxime,  173 ;  wanting,  172. 

Supines,  205 ;  mechanical  similar- 
it v  of  basis  with  perf.  and  fut. 
part.,  211  b;  uses  of  ace.,  554; 
to  denote  purpose,  554  (2)  ;  uses 
of  abl.,  555:  quantity  of  diss\  1- 
labic,  51. 

Supra,  with  ace.,  429;  meanings  of, 
559  (24). 

Surds,  13  ii. 

Sus,  declined,  102. 

Suus.    See  se. 

Swearing,  verbs  of,  tense  of  infin. 
with,  533  (5). 

Syllables,  rules  for  dividing,  19  ff. ; 
quantity  of,  28  ff . ;  of  vowels  in 
final,  45  ff . ;  in  certain  others,  51, 
52 ;  last  either  long  or  short  in 
verse,  610 ;  in  early  verse,  636  ff . 

Synaeresis,  609  (2). 

Synaloepha,  6O9  (1). 

Synapheia,  609  (5). 

Syncope,  63  ii.,  659  (29). 

Synecdochical  ace.,  398  a. 

Syntax,  2  iv.,  309  ff. 

Systole,  6O9  (1)  o  N. 

T,  sound  of,  18;  euphonic  chancres 
of,  65,  66  iii.,  iv.,  69  i.,  ii.  (2),  Hi., 
71. 

-ta,  abstract  noun  ending,  273  (2). 


Taedel,  impers.,  250  a;   with  gen., 

etc  ,  364  (2),  365  b. 
Tam,  187,  557  d. 
Tametsl,  478. 
Tamen,  use  of,  569  (2). 
Tamquam,  481. 
Tanti,  as  gen.  of  price,  372. 
Tantum  abest  tit,  499  c. 

-tds,  noun  ending,  109,  273  (2). 

Teaching,  verbs  of,  constr.  with, 
394  (2),  407  b. 

Temfterare,  with  dat.  and  ace.  in 
diff.  seizes,  378. 

Temporal,  numerals,  286  (3) ; 
clauses,  502  ff. ;  uses  of  tenses  in, 
524. 

Tendency,  adj.  of,  261,  267. 

Tense(s),  199;  primary  and  se- 
condary, 200 ;  uses  of,  461  ff . ;  of 
subjunc.,  524  ff. ;  of  imper.,  527  b, 
c;  of  infin.,  538,  539;  of  parti- 
cip.,  543  ff. ;  table  of,  formed  from 
the  three  stems,  212. 

Tenus,  wiih  abl,  430;  with  gen., 
431  /;  meanings  of,  561  (10); 
placed  after  its  noun.  431  d. 

•ter,  adverbs  in,  174,  557  a;  nouns 
of  agency  in,  270  a. 

Terra  marlque,  426  a. 

Terunci,  as  gen.  of  price,  372  a. 

Tete,  179  c. 

Tetrameter,  dactylic,  616,  654  (4) ; 
anapaestic,  630  (2). 

Th,  aspirate,  11  iii. ;  sound  of,  18  g. 

Thematic  vowel,  217  b. 

Thesis  and  arsis,  607. 

Thinking,  verbs  of,  constr.  with, 
533  (1). 

Third,  decl.  of  nouns.  99  ff. ;  of  adj. 
148  ff.;  conjug.,217  ff. 

Thousands,  how  expressed,  161  h, 
162  d. 

Threatening,  verbs  of,  case  with, 
376;  tense  of  infin.,  533  (5). 

-tia,  -ties,  -tid,  -tium,  abstract  end- 
ings, 272  ff. 

Tigris,  declension  of,  124;  gender 
of,  120  (4). 

-tilis,  adjective  ending,  261. 

Time,  adj.  of,  264;  adverbs  of, 
187  ;  constructions  of,  423  ff . ;  id 
aeldtis,  etc.,  398  6;  abl.  absol. 
denoting,  422  ;  concrete  nouns  in 
expressions  of,  432 ;  mode  of 


INDEX. 


451 


reckoning,   660 ;    table   of,   661 ; 

clauses  of,  502  ff . 
Tiniere,     cases     with,    378;   moods 

with,  492,  532  a. 
"Too"   or  "rather,"  expressed  by 

compar.,  164  (3)  a. 
-tor,  ending  of  nouns  of  agency,  270. 
-torium,  noun  ending,  276  (5). 
Tot,  187. 

Totus,  187,  187  F  1. 
Totus,  declension  of,   145,  146;  of 

place,  426  c. 
Towns,  gender  of  names  of,  81  ii., 

loc.  constr.  of,  426  (2). 
Jr-,  -tri-,  stems  in,  103  e,  108  b. 
Tranquilld,  as  abl.  absol.,  422  c  F. 
Trans,  with  ace.,  429  ;   meanings  of, 

559    (25) ;    form    in    comp.,   301 

(10);   constr.   with   verbs    comp. 

with,  394  (3). 
Transitive  verbs,  190. 
Trees,  gender  of  names  of,  81  ii. 
Tres,  declension  of,  160. 
Trihemimeris,  605  d. 
Trimeter,  iambic,  623,  624,  627. 
-trina,  -trinum,  noun  endings,  276  (2). 
-iris,  adjective  ending,  285. 
-trix,    ending     of    fern,     nouns    of 

agency,  270. 
Trochaic  verse,  618  ff. 
-Irum,  noun  ending,  258. 
Tu,  declined,  178;   ttite,  179  c. 
-turn,  noun  ending,  276  (1). 
Turn  .  .  .  turn,  563  (1)  b. 
Tumultu,  as  abl.  of  time,  424  b. 
Tune  and  mine,  187  F  2. 
-ttido,  abstract  ending,  272,  273  (3). 
-tus,  noun  ending  in  4th  declension, 

274   (3);    adj.    ending,   256    (1); 

perf.  part,  ending,  214. 
4us,   ending   in   3d   declension,  273 

(2). 

Tuns,  186 ;  tud,  with  refert  and  in- 
terest, 369. 

U,  sound  of,  16  ;  after  g,  q,  or  s,  18 
b ;  euphonic  changes  of,  59,  63 ; 
affinity  for  1,  59  a ;  not  allowed 
after  v  or  qu,  59  b,  c;  quantity  of, 
final,  46 ;  penult,  in  verbs,  225 ; 
parasitic,  64 ;  representing  oe,  60  ; 
retained  in  certain  words,  59  d. 

-tt-  stems,  of  nouns,  99,  126;  of  adj., 
141  F  3 ;  of  verbs,  217  a. 


Ubi,  moods  with,  506,  508;  perfect 
tense  with.  469. 

Ubicumque,  ubinam,  ulique,  ubivls, 
308. 

-ubus,  dat.  and  abl.  ending  in  4th 
decl.,  129. 

-uleus,  in  diminutives,  259  (4)  6. 

-ulis,  adjective  ending,  262. 

Ullus,  declension  of,  145,  146 ;  use 
_  of,  455. 

Ulterior,  compared,  170  (1) ;  ultimus, 
_for  "last  part  of,"  442. 

Ultra,  with  acc.}  429  ;  meanings  of, 
559  (26). 

-ulus,  -a,  -uni,  noun  and  adj.  ending, 
257  ;  diminutives  in,  259  (2). 

-um,  gen.  plur.  ending  in  3d  decl., 
116. 

-um,  gen.  plur.  ending  in  1st  and  2d 

_  decl.,  93d,  97  (7). 

Uncia,  662. 

-undain,  -widtts,  for  later  -endmn, 
-endus,  in  gerund  and  gerundive, 
227  g. 

Unthematic  verbs,  239. 

Unus,  declension  of,  145,  146 ;  plu- 
_ral  use  of,  161  a. 

Unusquisque,  460  (/ ;  unumquidquid, 
in  Plautus,  185  c. 

-MO,  verbs  in,  287  (especially  a). 

-ura,  noun  ending,  274  (4)." 

-urio,  desiderative  verb  ending,  290. 

-tints,  in  fut.  part.,  211  b,  214. 

-us,  ending  of  nouns  and  adj.  in  2d 
decl.,  95 ;  in  4th  decl.,  126 ;  quan- 
tity of  final,  50. 

-MS,  in  nouns  of  3d  declension,  102, 

_106  d,  273  (2). 

Usque,  with  ace.,  431  g. 

Usus,  with  abl.,  417. 

Ut  =  as,  187 ;  explanatory  or  limit- 
ing, 557  f;  interrogative  =  how, 
187;  =  when,  moods  with,  506^ 
508  N  1 ;  in  clauses  of  purpose, 
482  (1);  of  result,  483  (1);  sub- 
stantive clauses,  484  ff. ;  conces- 
sive, 479,  480 ;  in  wishes,  473  ;  ut 
.  .  .  ita,  557  e. 

Uter,  declension  of,  145,  146 ;  dis- 
tinguished from  quis,  460. 

Uterque,  146  a  ;  distinguished  from 
quis,  460 ;  from  ambo,  460  a. 

Utilis,  cases  with,  390  (1). 

Utl.     Seetft. 


452 


INDEX. 


Utinam,  308  ;  in  wishes,  473,  473  b. 
Utor,  with  ahl.,  419  ;  with  ace  ,  419 

a ;  gerundive  use  of,  550  a. 
Utrum  .  .  .  an,  580. 
-utus,  adj.  ending,  280. 
-uus,  adj.  ending,  283. 

V,  sound  of,  18 ;  euphonic  changes 
of,  68,  69  (6). 

Vacare,  with  dat.,  381  a. 

Vae,  interjec.,  583 ;  with  dat.,  391 
(3). 

Value,  gen.  of.     See  Gen.  of  Price. 

Fas,  vdsis,  105,  107. 

-ve,  enclitic,  35  a,  590  b  :  use  of,  565  b. 

Vel,  use  of,  565  ;  meaning  "even," 
565  c. 

Velim  and  vellem,  in  expressions  of 
wishing,  473  c,  491,  527  </. 

Velut,  veluti,  velut  si,  moods  with, 
481. 

Venit  in  mentem,  353  d. 

Verba  sentiendi  et  decldrandi,  533  (1 ). 

Verbal,  nouns  and  adj.,  252  a;  ace. 
with,  399;  dat,  with,  391  (2). 

Verbs,  74  (4),  189  ff. ;  moods  of, 
197,  198;  tenses  of,  199,200; 
stems  of,  208  ff.,  217  ;  forma- 
tion of  stems  of,  218  ff.,  230 
ff. ;  conjugation  of  regular,  222, 
223  ;  irreg.  (unthematic),  239  ff. ; 
trans,  and  intrans.,  189-191  ; 
depon.,  195;  semi-depon.,  196; 
principal  parts  of,  220,  221 ;  im- 
personal, 250;  defective,  249;  de- 
rivative, 287  ff.  ;  compound,  298; 
inceptive  (inchoative),  289;  fre- 
quentative (iterative)  and  inten- 
sive, 288;  intensive  (meditative), 
288  (4);  desiderative,  290;  di- 
minutive, 291  ;  lists  of  irregularly 
formed,  in  1st  conj.,  233  ;  in  2d 
conj.,  234;  in  4th  conj.,  238;  lists 
of,  in  3d  conj.,  235-237  ;  of  depon., 
in  3d  conj.,  236;  agreement  of, 
316  ff. ;  person  of,  with  rel.,  323  ; 
position  of,  595 ;  last  place  but 
one  in  sentence,  599  c. 

Verbum  infinitum,  202  (2)  N. 

Vereor,  constr.  with,  492,  492  b; 
veritus,  in  pres.  meaning,  544  a. 

Vero,  use  of,  567,  572  ;  position  of, 
590  a  ;  as  ablative  with  compara- 
tive, 416  6. 


Verse,  600  ;  different  kinds  of, 
603  ff. ;  names  in  -drius,  605  (2). 

Verse-accent,  6O6. 

Versification,  6OO  ff. 

Versu,  without  prep.,  426  d. 

Verum,  use  of,  566  (1 )  ;  rerun  etiam, 
etc.,  563  (2). 

Vescor,  with  abl.,  419;  with  ace., 
419  a  ;  gerundive  constr.  of,  550 
a. 

Vesperi,  136  a. 

Fester,  declension  of,  186 ;  vestnim 
and  restrl,  178  F;  not  used  for 
tuus,  443  a. 

Veto,  mood  with,  533  (3). 

Vetus,  declension  of,  154 ;  superla- 
tive of,  166  a. 

[Vicis],  declined,  137  (4). 

Video,  constr.  with.,  533  (1),  543  b. 

Fir,  declined,  95. 

Virgo,  declined,  1O4. 

Virus,  gender  of,  96  (2). 

Vis,  declined,  110. 

Vocative,  88  (5) ;  like  nom.  except 
sometimes  in  2d  decl.,  90  (3)  ;  ac- 
cent of,  in  nouns  in  -n/s,  97  (5)  a  ; 
uses  of,  402 ;  position  of,  592  ; 
not  properly  a  case,  402  N. 

Voice,  193  ff. ;  middle  voice,  193 
a ,-  impersonal  use  of  passive  of 
intrans.,  194,  387. 

Volgus,  gender  of,  96  (2). 

Void,  conjugated,  242 ;  constr. 
with,  487,  489  ff.,  533  (3). 

Voluntary  agent,  abl.  of,  406 ;  dat. 
of,  383. 

Vos.    See  Tu. 

Voti,  as  gen.  of  penalty,  367  a. 

Vowels,  4  i ,  5  ;  clashed,  5  F  2  ; 
sounds  of,  16 ;  euphonic  changes 
of,  58  ff. ;  quantity  of  final,  45  ff. ; 
of  certain  other,  37  ff.,  51-53, 
225,  237  a ;  stem  vowel  length- 
ened in  perfect,  231  c ;  long  vowels 
shortened  through  loss  of  accent, 
44  a  (2) ;  other  long  vowels  short- 
ened, 62,  635  ff. 

Vowel  stems,  of  nouns,  89,  91,  95, 
108  ff.,  126,  132  ;  of  adj.,  141  ff., 
150-152  ;  of  verbs,  217  a,  240, 
241,  248. 

"Want,  abl.  of,  414 ;  gen.  with  cer- 
tain verbs  of,  414  a,  b. 


INDEX. 


453 


Warning,  verbs  of,  cases  with,  366, 
367  c;  moods  with,  487,  489  ff. 

Way  by  which,  abl.  of,  407  c. 

Weights,  lloman,  662,  664. 

Winds,  gender  of  names  of,  80  ii. 

Wish,  subjunc.  of,  473  ;  with  velim, 
etc.,  473  c. 

Wishing,  verbs  of,  moods  with, 
486,  489,  491,  533  (3). 

Words,  division  into  syllables  19  ff.; 
formation  of,  251  ff.  ;  primitive 
and  derivative,  252 ;  compound, 
251  (3),  294  ff. ;  order  of,  584  ff .  ; 
neuter  when  treated  as  such,  82  ii. ; 
nominative  when  so  treated,  349 
(2) ;  without  suffixes,  254. 


Writers,  Latin,  list  of  the  principal, 
668. 

X,  double  consonant,  9  iii.  ;  equiva- 
lent to  cs  or  gs,  3  e,  12  a. 

Y,  only  in   Greek  words,  3  ;  sound 

of,  18. 
Year,  how  expressed,  161  i.,  424  d, 

660  (6). 

Yes  and  no,  how  expressed,  582. 
-ys,   nouns    in,    124;    quantity   of, 

final,  50. 

Z,  only  in  Greek  words,  3  ;  equiva- 
lent to  ds,  12  a ;  sound  of,  18. 


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prior  to  due  date 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 


LIBRARY  USE  OCT  31  '86 


YB  00226 


If  36 


0 


